Curio Cabinet / Person, Place, or Thing

Rags to riches is an understatement. Madam C.J. Walker, the daughter of two former slaves, worked her way up the ladder of a prejudiced society to earn enormous riches as an entrepreneur. Today we're celebrating her birthday with a look back at her remarkable career.
 
As a young black woman living in St. Louis in the 1890s, Walker didn't start out looking for the "next big idea." She was eking out a living for her and her daughter as a washerwoman. It wasn't until she found a job as a sales agent with a haircare company that things started taking off. The role was personal for her, as she suffered from scalp rashes and balding. Plus, her brothers worked in the hair business as barbers.
 
Walker was successful selling other people's hair products, but employment was getting in the way of her dream. Literally: a man who visited her in a dream inspired her to start her own company, selling hair and beauty products geared towards black women. The Madam C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company, of which Walker was the sole stakeholder, made its fortunes on sales of Madam Walker’s Wonderful Hair Grower. 19th-century hygiene called for only infrequent hair washing, which led to scalp infections, bacteria, lice, and—most commonly—balding. Walker's Hair Grower combatted balding and was backed by Walker's own guarantee that she used it to fix her own hair issues. A marketing strategy focused on black women, a neglected but growing portion of consumers, was a key ingredient for success.
 
As the business grew, Walker revealed bigger ambitions. “I am not merely satisfied in making money for myself," she said. "I am endeavoring to provide employment for hundreds of women of my race." Her company employed some 40,000 “Walker Agents” to teach women about proper hair care. Walker stepped beyond the boundaries of her business as a social activist and philanthropist. She donated thousands to the NAACP and put her voice behind causes like preserving Frederick Douglass's home and fighting for the rights of black World War I veterans.
 
It's often claimed that Walker was America's first black female self-made millionaire. But when she passed away in 1919, assessors found out her estate totaled around $600,000. Not that the number matters at all, really; Walker's legacy is priceless. We're guessing the businessmen and women she inspired could more than make up the difference.

This governor has the gift of gab. On this day in 1775, about a month before the American Revolution began in earnest, orator Patrick Henry uttered one of the most famous sentences in American history: “Give me liberty or give me death.” Or did he? There’s still some scholarly debate as to whether Henry actually said those iconic words, but there’s no doubt that his speeches stirred American imaginations.
 
Born on May 29, 1736, in Hanover County in the Colony of Virginia, Henry’s childhood put him on a good path for a future orator. His father, a Scottish immigrant, had been educated at King’s College, while his mother came from a wealthy local family. Since his family’s wealth would pass to Henry’s older brother rather than him, he couldn’t afford a life of leisure. He was educated at home by his father, and in his late teens tried to open and run a store with his brother, though it quickly failed. For a time he helped his father-in-law run a tavern in Hanover, before beginning at-home studies to become a lawyer. Henry already understood the power of words and the persuasive force of good oration. He’d grown up watching passionate preachers during the religious revival known as the Great Awakening, which helped drive him toward his new profession.
 
After earning his law license in 1760, Henry’s wit and speaking ability made him a quick success. His most important legal victory came in 1763, in the sentencing phase of a case known as the Parson’s Cause. Since tobacco was a major cash crop in Virginia, many Virginian officials received their annual pay in tobacco. When a series of droughts in the 1750s caused tobacco prices to rise from two cents per pound to three times that much, the Virginia legislature stepped in to stabilize things. They passed the Two-Penny Act, which set the price of tobacco used to pay contracts at the usual two cents per pound. Clergy in the Anglican Church, which was sponsored by the British government, didn’t want their revenue limited by the Two-Penny Act. So, they appealed to authorities in England, who sided with them, overruling the Two-Penny Act. With the power of England behind him, Reverend James Maury of Hanover County, Virginia, sued his own parish for backpay and won. All that was left was to decide exactly how much backpay Maury was owed. That’s where Patrick Henry came in. Arguing on behalf of the parish vestry, Henry gave a passionate speech about what he saw as the greed of church officials and the overreach of Britain. By overturning the Two-Penny Act, he argued, the British government was exerting tyrannical power over the people of Virginia. Though some in the courtroom accused Henry of treason, the jury sided with him, awarding Maury just one penny of backpay. The case made Henry so popular that it gained him 164 new clients within a year.
 
Now famous for his fiery speeches and resistance to British power, Henry was elected to the Virginia legislature’s lower chamber, the House of Burgesses, in 1765. In 1774, Henry became a delegate to the First Continental Congress. His most famous speech came the following year, at the Second Virginia Convention, where members debated whether to add language to Virginian governing documents stating that the British king could veto colonial legislation. Henry instead proposed amendments about raising an independent militia, since he believed that war with England was imminent. On March 23, he delivered a fiery address saying, “Gentlemen may cry, Peace, Peace but there is no peace. The war is actually begun!” After arguing in favor of his amendments in more detail, he ended with the famous line, “I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!”
 
In truth, we’ll never know if Henry actually uttered that famous sentence. His speech was never transcribed during his lifetime, but was pieced together from recollections of those present more than 10 years after his death. Regardless, we do know that Henry went on to become Virginia’s first governor in 1776, after the United States declared independence from England, and that he served until 1779. He was elected again in 1785, and served for two years. Though Henry is best remembered for a single speech, he made plenty of others, won plenty of legal cases, and served his newly-formed state and country in both peace and wartime. No one can say that he was all talk!

 
[Image description: A black-and-white illustration of Patrick Henry delivering his famous speech to other men at the Virginia Assembly. He has one hand raised, as do many of the audience members. On the ground is a paper reading “Proceedings of the Virginia Assembly.”] Credit & copyright: Published by Currier & Ives, c. 1876. Library of Congress. Public Domain.

Gangway! This Civil War battle didn’t take place on horseback, but on ships. While naval battles usually come to mind in relation to the World Wars, they were also part of the Revolutionary War and the American Civil War. In fact, the Battle of Hampton Roads, which ended on this day in 1862, was the first American battle involving ironclad warships.
 
Just a few days after the breakout of the Civil War on April 12, 1861, President Lincoln ordered a blockade of all major ports in states that had seceded from the Union, including those around Norfolk, Virginia. While in charge of maintaining the blockade at the Gosport Navy Yard in Portsmouth, Virginia, Union leaders got word that a large Confederate force was on its way to claim control of the area. The Union thus burned parts of the naval yard and several of their own warships to prevent them from falling into Confederate hands. Among them was the USS Merrimack, a type of steam-powered warship known as a steam frigate. The ship was also a screw frigate, as it was powered by screw propellers, making it quite agile for its time. When the ship was set ablaze, it only burned to the waterline. The bottom half of the Merrimack, which included its intact steam engines, sank beneath the surface of the Norfolk Navy Yard. Union troops in the area then retreated, and the Confederacy took over the area.
 
The Confederacy now controlled the south side of an area called Hampton Roads. This was a roadstead, or place where boats could be safely anchored, positioned in an area where the Elizabeth, Nansemond, and James rivers met before flowing into Chesapeake Bay. Determined to destroy the Union blockade that had cut them off from trade, the Confederates began pulling up remnants of recently-burned Union ships, including the Merrimack. Since the blockade included some of the Union’s most powerful ships, the Confederacy rebuilt the Merrimack as an ironclad warship, fitting an iron ram onto her prow and rebuilding her formerly wooden upper-deck with an iron-covered citadel that could mount ten guns. This new ship was named the CSS Virginia.
 
Word of the CSS Virginia caused something of a panic amongst Union officers, and they quickly got permission from Congress to begin construction of their own ironclad warship. The vessel was the brainchild of Swedish engineer John Ericsson, and included novel elements like a rotating turret with two large guns, rather than many small ones. They named their ship the USS Monitor.
 
The Battle of Hampton Roads began on the morning of March 8, 1862, when the CSS Virginia made a run for the Union’s blockade. Although several Union ships fired on the advancing Virginia, most of their gunfire bounced off her armor. The Virginia quickly rammed and sank the Cumberland, one of the five main ships in the blockade, though doing so broke off Virginia’s iron ram. Virginia then forced the surrender of another Union ship, the Congress, before firing upon it with red hot cannonballs, lighting it on fire. Already, more than 200 Union troops had been killed while the Virginia had only lost two crewmen. As night fell and visibility waned, the ship retreated to wait for daylight.
 
The Union quickly dispatched the Monitor to meet Virginia the next day. When the Confederates headed for the Minnesota, a grounded Union ship, Monitor rushed in to block her path. The two ironclads fired at one another, and continued to do so for most of the day, each finding it difficult to pierce the other’s armor. At one point, Virginia ran aground, but was able to get back into water just in time to avoid being destroyed. At another point, Monitor’s captain, Lieutenant John L. Worden, was temporarily blinded when his ship’s pilot house was hit with a charge. Monitor was thus forced to retreat, but neither it nor Virginia were damaged enough to render them physically incapable of fighting, so the battle ended inconclusively. Both sides claimed victory, but with the Union blockade still intact, the Confederacy hadn’t gained much ground. Eventually, the Confederacy was forced to destroy their own ship when they abandoned Norfolk, to prevent Virginia from falling into enemy hands. The Monitor sank in late 1862 when she encountered high waves while attempting to make her way to North Carolina. A pretty unimpressive end for such inventive ships.

 
[Image description: A painting depicting the Battle of Hampton Roads. Soldiers on horses look down a hill over a naval battle with ships on fire.] Credit & copyright: Kurz & Allison Art Publishers, 1889. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Public Domain.

You may remember the Alamo, but how much do you actually know about it? On this day in 1836, the Battle of the Alamo began. Many Americans (especially Texans) think of the battle as a heroic last stand fought by brave patriots. As with many violent historical conflicts, though, things weren’t quite as simple or morally black-and-white as movies and folk songs might lead us to believe.
 
The Battle of the Alamo took place during the Texas Revolution, a war for Texan independence from Mexico. While Mexican officials obviously took issue with Texas attempting to break away, they were also upset by Texans’ use of slaves, since Mexico was cracking down on slavery. Texans argued that their economy depended on slavery, with many of their wealthiest being cotton farmers. At first, as the staunchly abolitionist Mexican government tried to outlaw slavery in their territory, some of the colonists left. By 1835, however, tensions grew into armed conflict. By the time of the battle, Texans were emboldened by their previous victories against the Mexican army, especially after they’d managed to drive the Mexicans south of the Rio Grande. However, when Mexico retaliated by sending General Antonio López de Santa Anna north with thousands of soldiers, many of the Texan rebels quickly abandoned the ground they had gained. One of the few remaining garrisons was located in a former Spanish mission called the Alamo. The adobe structure was not suitable for defending against an attack, and few rebels remained. Nevertheless, the commanders of the fort, William Travis and James Bowie, stayed behind, hoping that reinforcements would be sent their way. In the weeks leading to General Santa Anna’s arrival at the fort, the two commanders sent impassioned letters to the Texas legislature asking for reinforcements, to no avail. The Texas government was brand new and not organized enough to mobilize a large fighting force. Even if they had been, it would have been extremely difficult to get enough troops to the Alamo before the Mexican army’s arrival.
 
Travis and Bowie were both well aware of the approaching army, but refused to flee. Neither of them had much military experience, and with the fort poorly equipped or laid out for a defense, the odds were truly against them. On February 23, 1836, General Santa Anna arrived with his troops, and a 13-day siege began. Among the Texan soldiers was former Tennessee congressman Davy Crockett and the families of the soldiers garrisoned there. Some popular, modern imaginings of the battle, such as 1960’s The Alamo starring John Wayne, depict it as a desperate last stand. Historical accounts paint a different picture, though. Rather than a fight to the last man, about half of the Texan rebels fled before the battle’s end, and most of them were skewered by Mexican cavalry. Crockett himself surrendered and was executed, while the families of the soldiers were allowed to leave unharmed. The battle also did little to delay General Santa Anna and his troops on their way to their larger mission: capturing San Antonio. He had promised the Mexican government that he would take the city by March 2, and it was captured on the 6th.
 
Today, the Battle of the Alamo and the purported courage of the men who died there is an integral part of Texas state history, but that history is often not told in full. Most accounts of the Alamo make little mention of slavery, even though Texans’ desire to keep slaves was one of their main reasons for wanting to break with Mexico. Most modern adaptations of the story also leave out the Tejanos, the settlers of Mexican descent who fought alongside the white Texans. History might seem like a thing of the past, but it’s always relevant to the present.

 
[Image description: A watercolor drawing of the ruins of the Alamo.] Credit & copyright: Ruins of the Church of the Alamo, San Antonio de Béxar, Edward Everett (1818-1903). Amon Carter Museum of American Art, Fort Worth, Texas, Gift of Anne Burnett Tandy in memory of her father Thomas Lloyd Burnett, 1870-1938. Public Domain.

Did Aphrodite smile on you this Valentine’s Day? As the most romantic weekend of the year draws to a close, it seems only right to learn a bit about Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. Also known by her Roman name, Venus, Aphrodite is remembered today as a beautiful, romantic figure…yet she wasn’t actually the goddess of romantic love. Rather, her dominion was over physical desire and lust. This made her a surprisingly dangerous figure in Greek mythology, as she was a character driven by jealousy and prone to driving mortals mad. Even the story of her birth is surprisingly violent.
 
Like all Greek gods and goddesses, Aphrodite has two origins: the historical and mythical. The worship of Aphrodite might have been introduced to ancient Greece from the Middle East, and, indeed, there are similar figures in other pantheons of antiquity. Namely, she is considered to have many similarities to Ishtar of Mesopotamia and Hathor of ancient Egypt. Regardless of how she came to be introduced to the Greeks, her mythological origins are a little more fantastical, to say the least. Unlike most of the other Greek gods, Aphrodite wasn’t descended from the King of the gods, Zeus, nor any of his siblings. Instead, her birth came about as a result of divine patricide. When the titan Cronus overthrew his father, Uranus, he castrated him and threw his dismembered body into the sea. There, from the blood and foam of Uranus, Aphrodite was born. Due to the circumstances of her birth, she was strongly associated with water and was sometimes worshipped as a sea goddess.
 
Aphrodite was most commonly depicted as a goddess of beauty, fertility, sexuality, and, of course, love. But the Greeks strongly distinguished between erotic love and romantic love, and Aphrodite was the goddess of the former. Romantic love was seen in a positive light, while erotic love was seen as a sort of madness. With this in mind, Aphrodite’s temperament in mythology makes much more sense. She was frequently depicted as fickle, jealous, and short-tempered. In fact, despite being the goddess of love, she wasn’t particularly loyal to her own husband, Hephaestus. Various stories feature her affairs with Ares, Adonis, and other figures, often ending in humiliation or tragedy. She was also jealous when it came to her son, Eros, who shared his mother’s affinity for love and sexuality. When he fell in love with the mortal Psyche, Aphrodite conspired to break the couple apart by forcing Psyche to complete a set of seemingly impossible trials. Aphrodite’s meddling once resulted in the ruin of an entire kingdom. The goddess, along with Hera and Athena, forced Paris of Troy, a mortal man, to judge which of them to be the most beautiful. After Troy chose Aphrodite, she blessed him by having Eros strike Helen, one of the most beautiful mortal women in the world, with one of his enchanted arrows, making her fall in love with Paris. Unfortunately, Helen was already loved by Menelaus, the king of Sparta. After Paris and Helen eloped by returning to the former’s home, Menelaus rallied the rest of the Greeks to wage war against Troy. Following a 10-year conflict, Troy fell to the Greeks, resulting in Paris’s death.
 
Today, Aphrodite is often depicted as much more benevolent, which makes sense given the lessened distinction between erotic and romantic love, and a more positive view of sexuality. Depictions of Aphrodite also change with evolving beauty standards, reflecting the ideal female form at various points in history. Perhaps the most famous portrayal of the goddess is in the painting, The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli, which takes inspiration from the story of her birth at sea. If you’ve never seen the painting, don’t worry; it’s much less graphic than the myth it’s based on!

 
[Image description: The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli (1445–1510), a painting depicting Venus rising naked out of the ocean on a giant shell while flying winged figures blow wind toward her and woman on shore approaches with a blanket.] Credit & copyright: Sandro Botticelli (1445–1510), Uffizi Gallery. Public Domain.

In the face of tyranny, sometimes it pays to be a Paine in the neck. British-American political writer and propagandist Thomas Paine was born on this day in 1737. Paine is known for being one of the most influential voices during the American Revolution, but he was also a strong supporter of the French Revolution.
 
Paine was born in Norfolk, England, to a Quaker father and an Anglican mother, and had limited access to education in his early life. While his abilities to read, write, and perform basic arithmetic allowed him to work several jobs, he had few opportunities for economic advancement. Paine also seemed to struggle with every trade he attempted. One of his earliest jobs was being an officer of the excise, which involved chasing smugglers to collect excise taxes on tobacco and alcohol. The job paid little, and Paine was dismissed from the position after he published a pamphlet arguing that higher pay for excise officers would lead to lower corruption. Paine’s fortunes changed in 1774, when he had a chance meeting with Benjamin Franklin. Franklin urged Paine to move to America, and he arrived in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on November 30, 1774. There, he cut his teeth working at the Pennsylvania Magazine, owned by Franklin’s son-in-law, Robert Aitkin. During his tenure working with Aitkin, Paine published a number of articles under his own name and under pseudonyms. Being a steadfast abolitionist, Paine published African Slavery in America, an article that criticized and condemned the African slave trade.
 
Paine really began to make a name for himself when anti-British sentiment began to grow in the American colonies, along with calls for independence. In January, 1776, Paine anonymously published his most famous pamphlet, Common Sense, largely aimed at American colonists who were still undecided on the matter of independence. More than calling for sympathy, the pamphlet encouraged colonists to revolt against the British and to sever ties with the empire completely. Paine’s limited educational background might have actually contributed to his success. While his arguments were coherent and compelling, they appealed to a wider audience because of his tendency to speak and write in a plain, straightforward manner, forgoing the use of latin terms and phrases or philosophical allusions popular with more educated writers of the time. Upon being published, Common Sense sold 500,000 copies in a matter of months, and it was popular to read it aloud during public gatherings. Another popular pamphlet by Paine, The American Crisis, was published the same year, and it was promoted amongst American officers by George Washington himself. This pamphlet was aimed at bolstering the morale of the colonists as conflicts began to escalate in the American Revolution. It contained the now famous words, “These are the times that try men's souls: The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.”
 
Despite his staunch support for the American Revolution, Paine had few friends left by the end of it. When he returned to Britain in 1787 and wrote The Rights of Man in favor of the French Revolution, he was tried for treason, forcing him to flee to France, where he was imprisoned, ironically, for opposing the execution of King Louis XVI. Paine was released thanks to the American ambassador to France, but he later openly criticized George Washington for failing to support him when he had claimed American citizenship to avoid prison. He eventually returned to the former American colonies, now called the United States of America, at the invitation of President Thomas Jefferson. Paine died in 1809, and only six mourners attended his funeral. For much of the following century, Paine was remembered as an instigator and poorly regarded. Today, though, he’s remembered as a leading thinker and writer who helped embolden everyday Americans. No Paine, no American Revolution!

 
[Image description: A painting of Thomas Paine wearing a black suit and white neckcloth sitting in a green chair.] Credit & copyright: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. Laurent Dabos, 1761 - 1835. Public Domain, CC0.

Some historical events are like explosions—they happen in an instant. But others, even some of the most impactful, happen like a series of falling dominos. With events like these, it’s easier to see their true impact in hindsight. This month in 1933, one such event happened in Germany, when Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor by President Paul von Hindenburg. The political occurrences leading up to Hitler’s appointment, as well as those directly following it, fell perfectly in place to allow the Nazis to seize control of the country.
 
The end of WWI saw the end of the German Empire, and its successor, the Weimar Republic, was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June of 1919. The fledgling nation was made to accept responsibility and pay reparations to the parties involved in the war. Between the reparation payments and the debt accrued during the war, the Weimar Republic was in dire economic straits by the early 1920s. There was also plenty of social unrest in the wake of WWI, which gave rise to political extremism on both ends of the spectrum. On one side was the German Communist Party, which quickly gained popularity, while another emergent group was the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, soon to be referred to as the “Nazis.” At first, the Nazis struggled to gain political ground or capture the public’s attention, though they had the support of their own paramilitary group, the Sturmabteilung SA (storm troopers), consisting mostly of WWI veterans. Then, in 1923, Adolf Hitler, a rising figure in the Nazi Party, along with WWI general Erich Ludendorff, made a failed attempt to overthrow the government in what would come to be known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Ludendorff was already a renowned war hero popular with many Germans, but the failed coup was Hitler’s first step toward political fame. Using the sudden burst of notoriety as a springboard, Hitler wrote his autobiography, Mein Kampf (My Struggle) by dictation while spending a year in prison.
 
When the Great Depression hit global markets at the end of the 1920s, the Nazi Party capitalized on the severe economic hardships facing everyday Germans. They blamed an ineffectual government, the communist movement, Jewish financiers, and modernist cultural movements for the decline of Germany. The party promoted the idea that minority groups, including Jews, immigrants, disabled people, and LGBTQ+ people were draining the nation’s wealth. By 1933, the Nazi Party had the largest single share of votes in parliamentary elections, and they began to throw sand into the governments’ gears, stymying any efforts by parliament to pass meaningful legislation. At the same time, they decried the passivity of parliament and the inefficiencies of democracy.
 
Then, in 1933, in a vain attempt to court Nazi support, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor of Germany. Hindenburg hoped that it would lead to the Nazi party’s cooperation in governance. Unfortunately, no such cooperation emerged. When Hindenburg died the following year, Hitler declared himself Führer (leader) of Germany and began the systematic dismantling of the country’s democratic apparatus. He then cemented his power by attacking or imprisoning his critics and rivals, including the Sturmabteilung SA, which he began to consider a liability due to their violent activities on the street. The systematic purge of Hitler’s enemies, including his former supporters from June 30 to July 2, 1934, came to be known as the Nacht der langen Messer (Night of the Long Knives). It was met with widespread support by the greater German populace. Throughout the rest of the 1930s, Hitler and the Nazi Party expanded their military in direct opposition to the Treaty of Versailles and began claiming neighboring territories based on the supposed populations of ethnic Germans living there. To avoid conflict, European leaders opted for a policy of appeasement in 1938, allowing Germany to claim Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland in exchange for a pledge not to seek further territory.
 
Of course, Nazi Germany didn’t stop at Czechoslovakia, which they invaded the following year. Soon came Poland and before long Nazi crosshairs were aimed at the rest of Europe. It took the Nazi Party almost 20 years, but they eventually came to hold absolute power by undermining the principles of democracy and eroding the safeguards that held it in place. While most see the Nazis’ rise to power as a cautionary tale, some modern dictators have used it as a playbook to be copied, making Nazi ideology a threat to this day.

For most people today, winter is either a time for fun activities like sledding, ice skating, and skiing, or a time of inconvenience, when streets are slippery, commutes are longer, and windshields need scraping. But not so long ago, winter was a truly dangerous time for average people, especially if they were traveling. No story illustrates that point quite as well as the tragic tale of the Donner Party, a group of pioneers migrating from the Midwest to California in 1846. Their attempt to survive a brutal winter in the Sierra Nevada is considered one of the darkest chapters from the time of westward expansion in America.
 
Before the completion of the first Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, traversing the U.S. was a dangerous, harrowing task. Journeys were made largely on foot with provisions and other supplies carried on wagons. There weren’t always well-established roads or reliable maps, making long-distance travel a particularly haphazard endeavor. Nevertheless, the allure of fertile farmland drew thousands to the West Coast, including brothers George and Jacob Donner, as well as James Reed, a successful businessman from Springfield, Illinois. The Donner brothers and Reed formed a party of around 31 people and set off for Independence, Missouri, on April 14, 1846. On May 12, they joined a wagon train (a group of individual parties that traveled together for mutual protection) and headed west toward Fort Laramie 650 miles away. For the first portion of the trip, they stayed on the Oregon Trail, which ended near present-day Portland, Oregon. The Donners and Reeds, however, were traveling to California, and intended to take the California Trail, which diverged from the Oregon Trail at two points between Fort Bridger and Fort Hall. However, instead of waiting for either of those better-established routes, the Donners and Reed opted to take what they believed was a shortcut on the advice of a guide they were traveling with named Lansford Hastings. This supposed shortcut, called Hastings Cutoff, was purported to cut 300 miles from the trip, which would have gotten the travelers to their destination months earlier than anticipated. Hastings Cutoff was heavily promoted by Hastings in his book, The Emigrants' Guide to Oregon and California, which contained advice and trail maps to the West Coast.
 
What the Donners and Reed didn’t know was that Hastings had never actually traveled his namesake shortcut himself. Contrary to his assertions, the shortcut actually added 125 miles to the trip. Hastings also didn’t join the Donners and Reeds, who parted ways from him at Fort Bridger. Electing George Donner as their leader, the Donners, the Reeds, and dozens more joined together to tackle Hastings Cutoff. The Donner party reached it on July 31, and initially made good time. But since Hastings Cutoff took them through largely untraveled wilderness, they faced severe delays, preventing them from crossing the Sierra Nevada before winter. On October 31, the party established a camp to survive the winter in the area now known as Donner Pass. By then, Reed and his family had set off on their own after he killed another man in the party. As winter set in, the Donner party built cabins for shelter, but they had little in the way of supplies, having lost most of their food during their previous delays. By December, they were trapped by heavy snow, and on the 16th of that month, 15 members of the party set out to find help. Most of the remaining survivors at camp were children.
 
The aftermath of the disastrous venture made headlines around the country. Only seven of the party members who set out for help survived, and of the original 89 members of the Donner party, 42 starved or froze to death. Sensational claims of cannibalism became the focus of the story after it was discovered that about half of the survivors had consumed the flesh of the dead after depleting their meager supply of food, livestock, dogs, and whatever leather they could boil. Among the dead were the Donner brothers and most of their immediate family. Today, the doomed expedition is memorialized through museum exhibits and the area where the Donner party spent their harrowing winter, which is now called Donner Pass. The next time you curse yourself for taking the wrong exit on a road trip, thank your lucky stars for GPS.

 
[Image description: Snow falling against a black background.] Credit & copyright: Dillon Kydd, Pexels

Guys, I don’t think that’s Santa! In recent years, a monster-like figure known as Krampus has taken the modern world by storm, popping up in memes and even starring in his own movie. But this folkloric figure is far from a modern invention. In fact, his fame as a Christmas figure began in the 17th century (though his origins stretch back even further, to the 12th century) and he was actually portrayed as Santa’s helper.
 
The name Krampus, is thought to come from the German word for claw, “Krampen.” Krampus certainly does have fearsome claws, along with exaggerated, goat-like features (horns, legs, hooves, and a tail) on a mostly humanoid body with a long tongue and shaggy, black fur. Krampus is also associated with Norse mythology, and one of his earliest iterations was thought to be as the son of Hel, the god of the underworld. Regardless of exactly where he came from, Krampus came to have just one job during Christmas, according to many European countries: punish children who misbehaved during the year. Unlike Santa, who merely rewards good children, the Krampus takes punitive measures like beating children with sticks and sometimes even kidnapping them. Santa isn’t unaware of Krampus’s deeds, either. According to folklore, since Santa is a saint, he can’t punish children…which is why Krampus does it for him. Both St. Nicholas and Krampus are said to arrive on Krampusnacht, or Krampus Run (December 5), to dole out each child’s reward or punishment, respectively. The next morning, children are supposed to be either basking in their presents or crying over their injuries from the night before. Compared to that, some coal in the stocking might be preferable.
 
This bizarre goat-monster probably came to be associated with Christmas because he was already associated with Winter Solstice and the pagan traditions surrounding it. Once Christianity began to spread in once-pagan regions, the two traditions became mingled, creating an unlikely crossover of a Turkish saint and a Norse demon. However, Krampusnacht might have taken more from the pagans than the Christians. Krampusnacht usually involves revelers handing out alcohol and a parade where people dressed like the Krampus run around chasing children. No surprise, then, that since the Krampus started to become intertwined with Christmas, the Catholic Church attempted to abolish the figure several times, to no avail. One particularly large, long-running festival takes place in Lienz, Austria, with a parade called Perchtenlauf, where cowbells ring to signal the arrival of Krampus.
 
Krampus’s popularity really began to take off in the early 20th century, when the figure was featured on holiday cards that ranged from comical to spooky. At first, Krampus cards were contained mostly to Germany and Austria, but the figure’s popularity began to spread around Europe and even across the Atlantic. In the U.S., the Krampus has become the go-to figure for those who wish to forego the typical Christmas sentimentality and embrace a more horror-centric and ironic approach to the holidays.
 
Today, many of the older traditions around the Krampus are still practiced, but the figure is also something of a pop-culture icon. 2015 saw the debut of Krampus, a horror movie that casts the monster as the main antagonist. Other films have followed suit, often incorporating elements from real folklore. Krampus might have also gained traction in the U.S. partly as a novel way to protest the increasing commercialization of Christmas. But that might have been in vain, since merchandise featuring Krampus is becoming ever more popular. How long until we get a Christmas carol about the guy?

 
[Image description: Krampus, a furry, black monster with horns and a long tongue, puts a child in a sack while another child kneels by a bowl of fruit.] Credit & copyright: c. 1900, Wikimedia Commons. This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer.

It’s really not as scary as it sounds. The Black Forest region of Germany is known for its picturesque landscape and traditional crafts. During the holiday season, German Christmas markets (or Christkindlmarkts) around the world are filled with hand-carved wooden toys and figurines from the region, and Black Forest ham is a beloved culinary delight throughout the year. However, there’s more to this historic, wooded area than just toys and food. The people living there have proudly retained distinct cultural practices that make the region unique.
 
Located in the southwestern state of Baden-Württemberg, the Black Forest is called Schwarzwald in German, though it went by other names in the past. The ancient Romans once associated the area with Abnoba Mons, a mountain range named after a Celtic deity. The earliest written record of the Black Forest also comes from the Romans, in the form of the Tabula Peutingeriana, a medieval copy of a Roman map that detailed the empire’s public road system. In it, the Black Forest is called Silva Marciana, which means “border forest,” in reference to the Marcomanni ("border people") who lived near Roman settlements in the area. The Black Forest today consists of 2,320 square miles of heavily forested land that stretches around 100 miles long and up to 25 miles wide. It contains the sources of both the Danube and Neckar rivers, and the area was historically known for its rich pastureland. Of course, the true stars of the Black Forest are the trees that define the region. The forests of Schwarzwald are mainly known for their oak, beech, and fir trees, the latter of which gives the region its name. Unsurprisingly, lumber production was historically a large part of the Black Forest’s economy, along with mining.
 
The Black Forest’s history of woodworking and woodcraft goes back centuries. Arguably the most famous craft to come out of the forest is the cuckoo clock, which was invented some time in the 17th century. As their name implies, cuckoo clocks typically feature a small, carved bird that emerges from above the clock face to mark the arrival of each hour with a call or song. More elaborate clocks sometimes have a set of dancers that circle in and out of a balcony in time to the sound. Most cuckoo clocks are carved out of wood to resemble houses, cabins, beer halls, or other traditional structures, with a scene of domestic or village life around it. While many modern cuckoo clocks use an electronic movement to keep time, mechanical versions using weights and pendulums are still being made. The weights that power the movement are often made to resemble pine cones, and users need only pull down on them periodically to keep the clock ticking. There are a limitless variety of cuckoo clock designs, and there are still traditional craftsmen making them by hand. The Black Forest is also known for wood carved figurines and sculptures, many of which served as children’s toys. Wood carving as an industry first gained traction in the 19th century, when drought and famine forced locals to seek alternative sources of income, but it is now a cherished part of the region’s culture.
 
Today, the Black Forest is still home to many woodworkers. The region is also a popular destination for outdoor enthusiasts, thanks to its many hiking trails and immense natural beauty. Towns in and around the Black Forest feature traditional, pastoral architecture and growing art scenes, where artists take inspiration from local traditions and landscapes. All those clocks, and they still manage to stay timeless.

 
[Image description: A section of the northern Black Forest with thin pine trees. Credit & copyright: Leonhard Lenz, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

It’s not exactly floating on cloud nine, but it might feel pretty close. Since they first took to the skies, airships have held the popular imagination captive. Some of the world’s first airships (a term that includes blimps and dirigibles) used hydrogen to become lighter than air. Hydrogen was eventually replaced by helium, which was much less explosive. The very first airship to use helium took its maiden voyage on this day in 1921, and things seemed to be looking up for the future of airships. To the disappointment of many enthusiasts, however, they never really took off as a popular form of transportation.
 
Airships were, unsurprisingly, inspired by hot air balloons, which were invented in 1783. French engineer Jean Baptiste Meusnier was the first to build on the concept of a lighter-than-air vessel with a design that included steering by way of three propellers and a fully sealed balloon filled with gas, not hot air. Unfortunately for Meusnier, his design was never built, though it went on to inspire others. In 1785, French inventor Jean-Pierre Blanchard and American Dr John Jeffries made history by crossing the English Channel in a hydrogen-filled airship. Their success launched a new airship industry in which improvements and innovations developed fast. One major improvement was steam power, first used in 1852 by yet another French engineer, Henri Giffard. The most famous contribution to airship technology came in 1895, from German inventor Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin. The count designed an entirely new type of airship, named after himself: the Zeppelin, which was much more rigid than its predecessors. The first Zeppelin was built by Hungarian inventor David Schwarz, and was shaped like a long cigar that was wider at the front, with fins at the rear. Its rigid frame the Zeppelin faster than other airships of the time, capable of reaching speeds of up to 25 miles-per-hour. Zeppelins were also more resilient to adverse weather conditions.
 
Other airships soon adopted more rigid frames. While they were largely used for scenic passenger flights, Zeppelins were also used as military aircraft to bomb Britain during WWI due to their impressive cargo capacity. The U.S. military also adopted the use of airships, though they mostly used non-rigid dirigibles. The most prevalent among them were the Goodyear Pilgrims, invented in 1925. Though these were only capable of carrying two passengers and two crew members, and were originally made for scenic passenger flights, during the war they were utilized for surveillance by the U.S. Army and Navy. In fact, the first helium airship was the U.S. Navy’s C-7 blimp, which could carry a crew of four. Goodyear also made other nonrigid airships, or blimps, and they were a common sight during large events, where they served as advertisements. Some of these even remain in service today. With varied uses and designs, airships seemed to be on the rise during the early 20th century. One tragic event, however, changed course of the airship industry forever: the Hindenburg disaster. The Hindenburg was the first airship to provide regularly-scheduled service between Europe and North America, carrying passengers across the Atlantic faster than any ship of the time. But in 1937, the Hindenburg crashed during its landing approach in Lakehurst, New Jersey. After a hydrogen leak caught on fire from a static discharge, flames consumed the fabric covering containing the gas. In almost no time at all, the Hindenburg fell to the ground in a smoky blaze. Of the 97 passengers and crew on board, 35 lost their lives. Once the terrifying images of the conflagration spread around the world, the golden age of airships was essentially over.
 
With modern airplanes that can ferry hundreds of passengers across continents in hours, it might seem like airships are irrelevant today. Yet, these unusual aircraft do manage to find a place in modern times. Airships are still used to deliver aid relief to remote, undeveloped areas with no landing strips, since airships can safely drop cargo without having to land. They’re also widely used in scientific research and military surveillance, though in a reversal of past trends, there is a growing interest in airships for scenic flights. Then there are the enthusiasts who still fly dirigibles just for the fun of it. Don’t worry though; airships nowadays are filled with helium, making tragedies like the Hindenburg much less likely to occur. Who’s up for a leisurely blimp ride?

 
[Image description: A black-and-white image of the airship Captain Ferber in its hangar with people in uniform standing about.] Credit & copyright: Epinal Municipal Library, Limedia galleries. Etalab Open License, Public Domain.

If you’re only going to write one book, make it count. That’s exactly what 19th century British author Anna Sewell did with her one and only novel, Black Beauty. Published on this day in 1877, the book was a critical and commercial success. Written from the perspective of a horse, the story follows the titular character as he experiences increasing hardship under different owners. The book features vivid descriptions of inhumane treatment of horses, which was sadly common at the time of its publication. However, the novel actually helped bring an end to at least one cruel practice in addition to changing children’s literature forever.  
Born on March 30, 1820 in Norfolk, England, Anna Sewell’s early life was difficult. Growing up in poverty, her family moved frequently, and the Sewell children (Anna and her brother) sometimes stayed with relatives. When she was 12 (or possibly 14), Anna broke both of her ankles after slipping and falling. Her medical treatment was inadequate, leaving her with lifelong mobility issues. Anna’s mother was a prolific author of religious children’s books, as well as books on social issues like abolition and temperance. In her adolescence, Sewell began helping her mother edit her manuscripts. However, it wasn’t until her fifties that Anna began work on a book of her own. The story was inspired by the very animals that her injury forced her to rely upon: horses. Unable to walk without pain and with her condition worsening over her lifetime, she was more dependent on horses than most people. Perhaps owing to her own injury and chronic pain, she developed a deep empathy for the animals. By the time Sewell published her book, she was 57 and in failing health. Just five months after Black Beauty was released, Sewell passed away from what was likely tuberculosis.
 
Sewell’s novel follows Black Beauty—a highbred male horse—throughout his life from his perspective. As a foal, he lives on a farm owned by kind masters who treat him well. He lives with his mother, Duchess, and half-brother, Rob Roy. After he is trained to be ridden and pull carts, Black Beauty is sold to another master, who also treats him well. During his time with his second masters, Black Beauty makes friends with his master’s other horses. However, his circumstances change for the worse when his owner’s family moves out of England and he is sold yet again. Black Beauty is separated from his friends, and his new owner is not as kind to him. One day, the new owner rides him while drunk, injuring him in the process. The injury is accompanied by a disfiguring scar which renders him unfashionable to ride, and he is sold once again, this time as a work horse in industrialized London. In the city, Black Beauty experiences increasing hardship as he is forced to perform grueling labor. Eventually, he is purchased by a kindly cabdriver, but is sold again after three years. During that time, he encounters one of his old friends, whose health and body have been ruined by years of hard labor and neglect. Later, Black Beauty himself collapses while attempting to pull a crowded cab. He is then purchased by a farmer who restores him to health and later sells him to a couple of old ladies who treat him well. After a long and difficult life, Black Beauty is able to live in quiet and peace once more.
 
Sewell’s novel was not only a hit, it contributed greatly to the banning of bearing-reins, a piece of horse harness that forced the animal’s neck back to create a more upright posture. The use of bearing-reins (also called checkreins or overchecks) was common before the book was published, and often caused debilitating injuries to horses. Black Beauty was heavily promoted by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals for its sympathetic portrayal of horses and their combined efforts helped end the use of bearing-reins in England. In the literary world, Black Beauty ushered in a new type of novel, in which animals could literally tell their stories. Children’s classics like Charlotte's Web might not exist if not for Black Beauty. Young readers (and horses) would do well to thank Anna Sewell!

 
[Image description: The cover of the 1877 first edition of Black Beauty. The cover is green with gold flowers and the black head and neck of a horse.] Credit & copyright: London: Jarrold and Sons, Wikimedia Commons. This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired. This applies to the European Union and those countries with a copyright term of 70 years after the work was made available to the public.