Curio Cabinet / Nerdy Curio
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FREEScience Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
Even in an alien world, there are some discoveries that are too weird to be true. In the case of NASA’s Curiosity, it’s a deposit of pure sulfur, which the rover discovered after cracking open a rock. Sulfur is one of the most abundant elements in the universe, so finding it on the surface of Mars isn’t too much of a surprise on its own. However, sulfur is highly reactive, reacting with most metals except for gold and platinum. Therefore, it’s usually found as part of compounds called sulfides, and pure sulfur is relatively rare. As such, NASA considers this discovery to be one of the strangest in Curiosity’s 12 years of exploration. Mission project scientist Ashwin Vasavada said in a statement, "Finding a field of stones made of pure sulfur is like finding an oasis in the desert. It shouldn't be there, so now we have to explain it." As mysterious as it is, the discovery could shed some light on the history of the Red Planet’s ancient past. Pure sulfur, which is yellow and odorless, requires very specific conditions to form naturally. In this case, it was found in Gediz Vallis, where the rover has been looking for signs of water and microbial life. Gediz Vallis is a channel that snakes down from Mount Sharp, and while scientists believed that it may have formed due to erosion from wind or flowing water, the presence of sulfur might help them narrow down the exact conditions that existed in the past. Whatever it is, it’s certainly a curious moment in Curiosity’s history.
Even in an alien world, there are some discoveries that are too weird to be true. In the case of NASA’s Curiosity, it’s a deposit of pure sulfur, which the rover discovered after cracking open a rock. Sulfur is one of the most abundant elements in the universe, so finding it on the surface of Mars isn’t too much of a surprise on its own. However, sulfur is highly reactive, reacting with most metals except for gold and platinum. Therefore, it’s usually found as part of compounds called sulfides, and pure sulfur is relatively rare. As such, NASA considers this discovery to be one of the strangest in Curiosity’s 12 years of exploration. Mission project scientist Ashwin Vasavada said in a statement, "Finding a field of stones made of pure sulfur is like finding an oasis in the desert. It shouldn't be there, so now we have to explain it." As mysterious as it is, the discovery could shed some light on the history of the Red Planet’s ancient past. Pure sulfur, which is yellow and odorless, requires very specific conditions to form naturally. In this case, it was found in Gediz Vallis, where the rover has been looking for signs of water and microbial life. Gediz Vallis is a channel that snakes down from Mount Sharp, and while scientists believed that it may have formed due to erosion from wind or flowing water, the presence of sulfur might help them narrow down the exact conditions that existed in the past. Whatever it is, it’s certainly a curious moment in Curiosity’s history.
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FREESTEM Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
The big news in business this week? IT issues. An incident that’s being called the biggest IT outage in history began late Thursday night (though it mostly wasn’t noticed on a large scale until Friday morning) and is still causing turmoil days later. Airline employees essentially woke up Friday to find that, not only could they check in their customers, they also couldn’t schedule their own crews to work flights. This immediately caused thousands of flights to be canceled with no immediate way to reschedule them. Thus, many customers were left trapped in airports all over the world, most without access to their luggage. The domino effect created by the cascade of cancellations means that even now, days after the initial IT incident, plenty of people are still stranded and many flights are still being canceled. In fact, Delta has canceled so many flights this week that they’re facing a federal investigation by the U.S. Department of Transportation. The only good news is that this massive IT outage wasn’t caused by a cyberattack or other, outside security threat. Rather, it was caused by a single, faulty piece of code. CrowdStrike, a large, popular U.S. cybersecurity company used by many airlines to protect data, attempted a routine update of one of their software products, called Falcon, on Thursday night. Unfortunately, faulty code in the update caused it to interact with Microsoft Windows in an unintended way. Windows crashed on every machine that received the update, leaving airlines scrambling to rid themselves of the so-called “blue screen of death.” The only blue passengers want to see right now is the open sky!
The big news in business this week? IT issues. An incident that’s being called the biggest IT outage in history began late Thursday night (though it mostly wasn’t noticed on a large scale until Friday morning) and is still causing turmoil days later. Airline employees essentially woke up Friday to find that, not only could they check in their customers, they also couldn’t schedule their own crews to work flights. This immediately caused thousands of flights to be canceled with no immediate way to reschedule them. Thus, many customers were left trapped in airports all over the world, most without access to their luggage. The domino effect created by the cascade of cancellations means that even now, days after the initial IT incident, plenty of people are still stranded and many flights are still being canceled. In fact, Delta has canceled so many flights this week that they’re facing a federal investigation by the U.S. Department of Transportation. The only good news is that this massive IT outage wasn’t caused by a cyberattack or other, outside security threat. Rather, it was caused by a single, faulty piece of code. CrowdStrike, a large, popular U.S. cybersecurity company used by many airlines to protect data, attempted a routine update of one of their software products, called Falcon, on Thursday night. Unfortunately, faulty code in the update caused it to interact with Microsoft Windows in an unintended way. Windows crashed on every machine that received the update, leaving airlines scrambling to rid themselves of the so-called “blue screen of death.” The only blue passengers want to see right now is the open sky!
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FREEBiology Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
These ants are awfully different for all being the same! Genetic diversity is important for the survival of any species, since individuals that are genetically distinct from one another produce healthier offspring. That’s a problem for species that reproduce asexually, since asexual reproduction typically creates offspring that are nearly genetically identical to their parent. However, researchers at Rockefeller University recently discovered one stunning exception, according to a paper published in Nature. Parthenogenesis is a process in which an individual reproduces without fertilization of an egg. It may sound convenient, but it means that every generation receives two copies of the same chromosome from the mother. The resulting loss of heterozygosity, or genetic diversity, can lead to a buildup of detrimental mutations over several generations, resulting in the decline of the species. But one species seems to defy this trend: the clonal raider ant. Despite reproducing asexually, this species is thriving, spreading from its native habitat in Bangladesh to similar environments around the world. The secret to their success is that, unlike other species that reproduce through parthenogenesis, these ants co-inherit two distinct sets of genomes from two separate founding members of the species. So, instead of shuffling and recombining two copies of the same chromosome, they still have two distinct chromosomes that allow for the creation of new combinations of genes. These then get passed on to the next generation, preserving genetic diversity in a way that has never been observed in any other parthenogenetic species before. You’d need to be M.C. Escher to draw this family tree.
[Image description: A macro photograph of an ant’s face.] Credit & copyright: Egor Kamelev, Pexels
These ants are awfully different for all being the same! Genetic diversity is important for the survival of any species, since individuals that are genetically distinct from one another produce healthier offspring. That’s a problem for species that reproduce asexually, since asexual reproduction typically creates offspring that are nearly genetically identical to their parent. However, researchers at Rockefeller University recently discovered one stunning exception, according to a paper published in Nature. Parthenogenesis is a process in which an individual reproduces without fertilization of an egg. It may sound convenient, but it means that every generation receives two copies of the same chromosome from the mother. The resulting loss of heterozygosity, or genetic diversity, can lead to a buildup of detrimental mutations over several generations, resulting in the decline of the species. But one species seems to defy this trend: the clonal raider ant. Despite reproducing asexually, this species is thriving, spreading from its native habitat in Bangladesh to similar environments around the world. The secret to their success is that, unlike other species that reproduce through parthenogenesis, these ants co-inherit two distinct sets of genomes from two separate founding members of the species. So, instead of shuffling and recombining two copies of the same chromosome, they still have two distinct chromosomes that allow for the creation of new combinations of genes. These then get passed on to the next generation, preserving genetic diversity in a way that has never been observed in any other parthenogenetic species before. You’d need to be M.C. Escher to draw this family tree.
[Image description: A macro photograph of an ant’s face.] Credit & copyright: Egor Kamelev, Pexels
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FREEScience Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
Welcome back… sort of! The four crew members of NASA's Mars Dune Alpha, a 3D-printed structure meant to simulate a base on Mars, have finally emerged from their 378-day experiment. Their experiences could inform future missions to Mars. Even the most optimistic estimates regarding a space journey to Mars say that it would take months, if not a year or more, to get to the red planet. Once on Mars, the crew would likely have to wait even longer before attempting a return trip. This means that the crew would be spending an extended period of time on the planet, likely in cramped quarters. Those conditions aren’t just a threat to creature comforts, they could also threaten the mission itself should tensions arise for any reason.
To study the psychological effects that such a journey could have on a crew, NASA embarked on a daring experiment: Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog, or CHAPEA-1. For 378 days, four crew members lived inside Mars Dune Alpha, a 1,700-square-foot habitat that simulates what might be used in a real manned mission. Within the habitat, the crew were locked in, surviving on prepackaged foods and what they could grow on their own. In addition, the crew made simulated spacewalks, maintained all of their equipment, and could only communicate with the outside world with a simulated time delay since radio signals would take 22 minutes between planets. Throughout it all, the crew also had to maintain morale, a crucial, unquantifiable element of any mission. The results, according to crew members, were better than expected. According to the mission’s medical officer, the experiment “went by quickly.” To follow up with the success, NASA will be conducting another CHAPEA experiment, which is set to begin in 2025. Just think of it as the world’s most realistic space camp.[Image description: A starry night sky.] Credit & copyright: Felix Mittermeier, Pexels
Welcome back… sort of! The four crew members of NASA's Mars Dune Alpha, a 3D-printed structure meant to simulate a base on Mars, have finally emerged from their 378-day experiment. Their experiences could inform future missions to Mars. Even the most optimistic estimates regarding a space journey to Mars say that it would take months, if not a year or more, to get to the red planet. Once on Mars, the crew would likely have to wait even longer before attempting a return trip. This means that the crew would be spending an extended period of time on the planet, likely in cramped quarters. Those conditions aren’t just a threat to creature comforts, they could also threaten the mission itself should tensions arise for any reason.
To study the psychological effects that such a journey could have on a crew, NASA embarked on a daring experiment: Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog, or CHAPEA-1. For 378 days, four crew members lived inside Mars Dune Alpha, a 1,700-square-foot habitat that simulates what might be used in a real manned mission. Within the habitat, the crew were locked in, surviving on prepackaged foods and what they could grow on their own. In addition, the crew made simulated spacewalks, maintained all of their equipment, and could only communicate with the outside world with a simulated time delay since radio signals would take 22 minutes between planets. Throughout it all, the crew also had to maintain morale, a crucial, unquantifiable element of any mission. The results, according to crew members, were better than expected. According to the mission’s medical officer, the experiment “went by quickly.” To follow up with the success, NASA will be conducting another CHAPEA experiment, which is set to begin in 2025. Just think of it as the world’s most realistic space camp.[Image description: A starry night sky.] Credit & copyright: Felix Mittermeier, Pexels
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FREEScience Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
They say the devil’s in the details, but it looks like they found him! Researchers at the University of Sydney's School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering have managed to interpret the atomic structure of alloys using atom probe tomography (APT), according to a paper published in Nature Materials. When scientists want to look at the atomic structure of a given material, they can’t exactly put it in a slide under a regular microscope. Instead, they have to use APT, which forms a 3D visualization using measurements of field evaporated ions. It’s not a direct peek at the atomic structure, exactly, but an advanced model created using data. Researchers at the University of Sydney used this technology to determine the short-range order (SRO) of a material, which they compare to the genome of living tissue. In other words, they were able to decipher how the smallest intricacies in the arrangement of atoms in a crystal affected the material as a whole. At the atomic level, the smallest changes can have huge impacts on a material’s properties, and being able to “see” the SRO of materials might lead to the development of advanced alloys that are stronger and lighter than their conventional counterparts. Would that be materials science or genetic engineering?
They say the devil’s in the details, but it looks like they found him! Researchers at the University of Sydney's School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering have managed to interpret the atomic structure of alloys using atom probe tomography (APT), according to a paper published in Nature Materials. When scientists want to look at the atomic structure of a given material, they can’t exactly put it in a slide under a regular microscope. Instead, they have to use APT, which forms a 3D visualization using measurements of field evaporated ions. It’s not a direct peek at the atomic structure, exactly, but an advanced model created using data. Researchers at the University of Sydney used this technology to determine the short-range order (SRO) of a material, which they compare to the genome of living tissue. In other words, they were able to decipher how the smallest intricacies in the arrangement of atoms in a crystal affected the material as a whole. At the atomic level, the smallest changes can have huge impacts on a material’s properties, and being able to “see” the SRO of materials might lead to the development of advanced alloys that are stronger and lighter than their conventional counterparts. Would that be materials science or genetic engineering?
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FREEBiology Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
Won’t someone think of the animals? While most people have been understandably concerned with SARS-CoV-2’s effects on human populations, researchers at the University of South Florida (USF) in Tampa and other institutions are studying the virus’s effects on animals and its ability to spread between species. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, is zoonotic, meaning that it originated in a non-human species. The general consensus is that it probably came from bats due to its genetic resemblance to a bat-borne virus, but regardless of its origin, the virus is known to be transmissible to many different species. Currently, not much is understood about how the virus spreads in non-human species because it affects each species differently. While some hardly show any symptoms of an infection, others, like minks and big cats, can get just as sick as humans when infected with the virus. Due to the risk the virus poses to wildlife and livestock, the U.S. Department of Agriculture has been funding research into the matter, including USF researchers who are studying the virus in the wild. Among the vulnerable wildlife populations are the white-tailed deer, which are known to be particularly susceptible to infection from the virus. However, there are at least 50 mammal species in total that are known to be vulnerable, and there may be more. Over the next five years, USF will be monitoring how the virus spreads between species and which species are particularly vulnerable. Data from this study might help manage the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and other zoonotic viruses in the future. If only you could teach deer to cover their sneezes.
[Image description: Three female white-tailed deer in a field.] Credit & copyright: MONGO, Wikimedia Commons. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, I, MONGO. This applies worldwide.
Won’t someone think of the animals? While most people have been understandably concerned with SARS-CoV-2’s effects on human populations, researchers at the University of South Florida (USF) in Tampa and other institutions are studying the virus’s effects on animals and its ability to spread between species. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, is zoonotic, meaning that it originated in a non-human species. The general consensus is that it probably came from bats due to its genetic resemblance to a bat-borne virus, but regardless of its origin, the virus is known to be transmissible to many different species. Currently, not much is understood about how the virus spreads in non-human species because it affects each species differently. While some hardly show any symptoms of an infection, others, like minks and big cats, can get just as sick as humans when infected with the virus. Due to the risk the virus poses to wildlife and livestock, the U.S. Department of Agriculture has been funding research into the matter, including USF researchers who are studying the virus in the wild. Among the vulnerable wildlife populations are the white-tailed deer, which are known to be particularly susceptible to infection from the virus. However, there are at least 50 mammal species in total that are known to be vulnerable, and there may be more. Over the next five years, USF will be monitoring how the virus spreads between species and which species are particularly vulnerable. Data from this study might help manage the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and other zoonotic viruses in the future. If only you could teach deer to cover their sneezes.
[Image description: Three female white-tailed deer in a field.] Credit & copyright: MONGO, Wikimedia Commons. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, I, MONGO. This applies worldwide.
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FREEScience Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
Saturn might be the most beautiful planet in the Solar System thanks to its rings, but beauty is only skin deep. Just under the planet’s cloudy surface, Saturn is home to colossal megastorms that last hundreds of years. The cause? An unusual energy imbalance, according to a paper published in Nature Communications by researchers at the University of Houston. The ringed planet’s orbital eccentricity, defined by the difference between its aphelion (the closest point to the sun in the orbit) and perihelion (the furthest point) varies by about 20 percent. Compared to Earth’s measly 3 percent, that’s a huge difference. Where this matters is in the amount of energy that each planet absorbs from the sun during their orbits, and its effect on the global energy budget, or the amount of energy that a planet emits. For Earth, the 3 percent doesn’t make a big difference, but Saturn has huge variations in the amount of energy it receives from the sun, leading to wild temperature swings on the planet’s surface that contribute to the aforementioned megastorms. Researchers were able to observe the energy imbalance thanks to data from the Cassini probe mission, which studied Saturn for two decades. Though the data only directly concerns Saturn, the discovery that the planet’s orbital eccentricity can create such an energy imbalance helps scientists understand similar weather phenomena on other gas giants. When you get down to it, those gas giants are just full of hot (and cold) air!
[Image description: A black-and-white illustration of the planet Saturn.] Credit & copyright: Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikimedia Commons. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Pearson Scott Foresman. This applies worldwide.
Saturn might be the most beautiful planet in the Solar System thanks to its rings, but beauty is only skin deep. Just under the planet’s cloudy surface, Saturn is home to colossal megastorms that last hundreds of years. The cause? An unusual energy imbalance, according to a paper published in Nature Communications by researchers at the University of Houston. The ringed planet’s orbital eccentricity, defined by the difference between its aphelion (the closest point to the sun in the orbit) and perihelion (the furthest point) varies by about 20 percent. Compared to Earth’s measly 3 percent, that’s a huge difference. Where this matters is in the amount of energy that each planet absorbs from the sun during their orbits, and its effect on the global energy budget, or the amount of energy that a planet emits. For Earth, the 3 percent doesn’t make a big difference, but Saturn has huge variations in the amount of energy it receives from the sun, leading to wild temperature swings on the planet’s surface that contribute to the aforementioned megastorms. Researchers were able to observe the energy imbalance thanks to data from the Cassini probe mission, which studied Saturn for two decades. Though the data only directly concerns Saturn, the discovery that the planet’s orbital eccentricity can create such an energy imbalance helps scientists understand similar weather phenomena on other gas giants. When you get down to it, those gas giants are just full of hot (and cold) air!
[Image description: A black-and-white illustration of the planet Saturn.] Credit & copyright: Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikimedia Commons. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Pearson Scott Foresman. This applies worldwide.
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FREEAstronomy Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
There’s a lot that can go wrong in space, but there’s one thing that always does—the human immune system. Though it’s well known that astronauts risk their lives with every mission, most people don’t realize that they’re all but guaranteed to get at least a little sick. Now, researchers at Weill Cornell Medical College are beginning to uncover the mechanism behind this medical phenomenon, according to a paper published in Nature Communications. It’s been well-documented since the old days of the space race that simply being in zero-gravity seems to leave people more susceptible to disease. To figure out why, researchers conducted a study with 14 astronauts who spent up to 6.5 months at the International Space Station and analyzed their immune systems. They found that when an astronaut is in the microgravity environment of the space station, the gene expression in leukocytes (white blood cells) declines. This happens quickly too, with gene expression going down to a third of its normal levels within just days of exposure to microgravity. Fortunately, the effect is immediately reversed upon the astronauts’ return to Earth. Researchers hope to discover exactly why the immune system responds this way, and for long-term space missions or colonization to be possible, it's a problem that needs to be solved. Until then, wash your hands frequently if you happen to find yourself in outer space!
There’s a lot that can go wrong in space, but there’s one thing that always does—the human immune system. Though it’s well known that astronauts risk their lives with every mission, most people don’t realize that they’re all but guaranteed to get at least a little sick. Now, researchers at Weill Cornell Medical College are beginning to uncover the mechanism behind this medical phenomenon, according to a paper published in Nature Communications. It’s been well-documented since the old days of the space race that simply being in zero-gravity seems to leave people more susceptible to disease. To figure out why, researchers conducted a study with 14 astronauts who spent up to 6.5 months at the International Space Station and analyzed their immune systems. They found that when an astronaut is in the microgravity environment of the space station, the gene expression in leukocytes (white blood cells) declines. This happens quickly too, with gene expression going down to a third of its normal levels within just days of exposure to microgravity. Fortunately, the effect is immediately reversed upon the astronauts’ return to Earth. Researchers hope to discover exactly why the immune system responds this way, and for long-term space missions or colonization to be possible, it's a problem that needs to be solved. Until then, wash your hands frequently if you happen to find yourself in outer space!
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FREEEconomics Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
The stock market is volatile enough without social media getting involved! Be that as it may, strange economic activity fueled by the so-called “meme stock” craze isn’t going away any time soon. The latest example, which saw a meteoric rise (and subsequent fall) in stock prices for the electronics retail company GameStop, was fueled by a single influencer. Keith Gill, a financial analyst and Youtuber who goes by “Roaring Kitty” online, recently convinced many investors to buy GameStop stock, which sent the stocks’ price up by 47 percent in an extremely short time period. Gill is known for hyping up “meme stocks”, stocks in companies that have grown popular on social media, usually because of memes shared among traders there. Gill held around $115 million GameStop shares, so an increase in stock value certainly would have benefited him. Unfortunately, like many meme-fueled crazes, the uptick in GameStop value didn’t last, and stock prices for the company swiftly changed, plummeting more than 50 percent in two days. Gill likely lost out on around $350 million in profits due to the fall. Things might be “easy come, easy go” on social media, but big monetary losses still sting in real life.
The stock market is volatile enough without social media getting involved! Be that as it may, strange economic activity fueled by the so-called “meme stock” craze isn’t going away any time soon. The latest example, which saw a meteoric rise (and subsequent fall) in stock prices for the electronics retail company GameStop, was fueled by a single influencer. Keith Gill, a financial analyst and Youtuber who goes by “Roaring Kitty” online, recently convinced many investors to buy GameStop stock, which sent the stocks’ price up by 47 percent in an extremely short time period. Gill is known for hyping up “meme stocks”, stocks in companies that have grown popular on social media, usually because of memes shared among traders there. Gill held around $115 million GameStop shares, so an increase in stock value certainly would have benefited him. Unfortunately, like many meme-fueled crazes, the uptick in GameStop value didn’t last, and stock prices for the company swiftly changed, plummeting more than 50 percent in two days. Gill likely lost out on around $350 million in profits due to the fall. Things might be “easy come, easy go” on social media, but big monetary losses still sting in real life.
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FREESTEM Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
You thought the geese at your local park were aggressive and intimidating! Thank your lucky stars that they’re likely to be the worst avians you encounter. Paleontologists at Flinders University in Australia recently revealed the visage of an ancient bird that makes their modern counterparts seem downright friendly by comparison, according to a paper published in Historical Biology. The Land Down Under is known for its menagerie of unusual animals, and this extinct bird is no exception. Bits of its skull were first discovered way back in 1913, but the remains were far too damaged and scant to learn much from. Still, the species was officially dubbed Genyornis newtoni, with some choosing to call it the “giga-goose.” The bird lived around 45,000 years ago, and little was known about it until more skull fossils were discovered recently. These skulls are in far better condition, and have revealed some surprising facts about the so-called giga-goose. G. newtoni probably weighed around 500 pounds, and the flightless bird had a large braincase and powerful jaws. That’s not too surprising considering the size of the creature, but what did take paleontologists by surprise was the shape of the beak. While its jaws resemble parrots, its beak was shaped like that of geese. Additionally, its skull had structural similarities to that of early waterfowl and extant species like the Australian magpie goose. Count us glad that this goose is no longer on the loose.
[Image description: A Canada goose on water with its wings spread.] Credit & copyright: Boys in Bristol Photography, Pexels
You thought the geese at your local park were aggressive and intimidating! Thank your lucky stars that they’re likely to be the worst avians you encounter. Paleontologists at Flinders University in Australia recently revealed the visage of an ancient bird that makes their modern counterparts seem downright friendly by comparison, according to a paper published in Historical Biology. The Land Down Under is known for its menagerie of unusual animals, and this extinct bird is no exception. Bits of its skull were first discovered way back in 1913, but the remains were far too damaged and scant to learn much from. Still, the species was officially dubbed Genyornis newtoni, with some choosing to call it the “giga-goose.” The bird lived around 45,000 years ago, and little was known about it until more skull fossils were discovered recently. These skulls are in far better condition, and have revealed some surprising facts about the so-called giga-goose. G. newtoni probably weighed around 500 pounds, and the flightless bird had a large braincase and powerful jaws. That’s not too surprising considering the size of the creature, but what did take paleontologists by surprise was the shape of the beak. While its jaws resemble parrots, its beak was shaped like that of geese. Additionally, its skull had structural similarities to that of early waterfowl and extant species like the Australian magpie goose. Count us glad that this goose is no longer on the loose.
[Image description: A Canada goose on water with its wings spread.] Credit & copyright: Boys in Bristol Photography, Pexels
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FREESocial Media Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
If you feel like social media has gotten complicated lately, with ever-changing algorithms, diminished privacy, and a flood of AI-generated content, you’re certainly not alone. For artists using social media to promote their work, things have changed even more drastically. Not only are artists now competing against AI-generated images for views, many artists aren’t too keen on the idea of AI being “trained” on their artwork, without permission or compensation. With no legal AI regulations in sight, however, what are such artists to do? Create a new social media app, of course. Cara, an app founded by Singaporean photographer Jingna Zhang, aims to function as both a newsfeed and a portfolio site for artists who are sick of the AI images flooding other social media platforms. AI-generated content isn’t allowed on Cara, and user’s images are protected against attempts to use them in AI training by a service called Glaze. Put simply, Glaze alters image data in ways that are imperceptible to the human eye, but which disrupt AI’s ability to mimic artists’ style as closely. While Cara has been available for download since late 2023, it has recently seen a boom in popularity, and now has over 300,000 users. Only time will tell whether Cara, or other platforms like it, will become a new normal in our AI-obsessed landscape, but when it comes to social media, change always seems to be as fast as it is inevitable.
If you feel like social media has gotten complicated lately, with ever-changing algorithms, diminished privacy, and a flood of AI-generated content, you’re certainly not alone. For artists using social media to promote their work, things have changed even more drastically. Not only are artists now competing against AI-generated images for views, many artists aren’t too keen on the idea of AI being “trained” on their artwork, without permission or compensation. With no legal AI regulations in sight, however, what are such artists to do? Create a new social media app, of course. Cara, an app founded by Singaporean photographer Jingna Zhang, aims to function as both a newsfeed and a portfolio site for artists who are sick of the AI images flooding other social media platforms. AI-generated content isn’t allowed on Cara, and user’s images are protected against attempts to use them in AI training by a service called Glaze. Put simply, Glaze alters image data in ways that are imperceptible to the human eye, but which disrupt AI’s ability to mimic artists’ style as closely. While Cara has been available for download since late 2023, it has recently seen a boom in popularity, and now has over 300,000 users. Only time will tell whether Cara, or other platforms like it, will become a new normal in our AI-obsessed landscape, but when it comes to social media, change always seems to be as fast as it is inevitable.
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FREEEngineering Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
This isn’t a job for your average blacksmith. Scientists at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) have developed an electron-beam 3D-printer capable of creating defect-free tungsten components, potentially revolutionizing the ways that the material could be used. Tungsten is a useful material that’s tricky to work with. It has the highest melting point of any metal at 6177 degrees Fahrenheit and is one of the hardest materials around—both great qualities for components that need to withstand extreme environments. Unfortunately, they also make the metal a nightmare to work into shape. Plus, the harder something is, the more brittle it is, so in its pure form, tungsten can shatter under stress. In the past, these issues made complex tungsten components practically impossible to manufacture, but ORNL’s electron-beam 3D-printer completely bypasses the material’s shortcomings. Like other 3D printers, the electron-beam 3D-printer creates the components layer by layer, but with some additional measures. First, a vacuum environment is created in order to prevent contaminants and to prevent the electron-beam from losing energy to gas molecules. Then, a layer of tungsten dust is laid down, and the printer’s beam is directed into the shapes required for the component. The result is a piece of tungsten without any defects from contaminants or welds. The ability to create such complex components out of tungsten might contribute to the development of more viable fusion reactors, which can produce plasma as hot as 180 million degrees Fahrenheit. That would really make this metal a hot commodity.
This isn’t a job for your average blacksmith. Scientists at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) have developed an electron-beam 3D-printer capable of creating defect-free tungsten components, potentially revolutionizing the ways that the material could be used. Tungsten is a useful material that’s tricky to work with. It has the highest melting point of any metal at 6177 degrees Fahrenheit and is one of the hardest materials around—both great qualities for components that need to withstand extreme environments. Unfortunately, they also make the metal a nightmare to work into shape. Plus, the harder something is, the more brittle it is, so in its pure form, tungsten can shatter under stress. In the past, these issues made complex tungsten components practically impossible to manufacture, but ORNL’s electron-beam 3D-printer completely bypasses the material’s shortcomings. Like other 3D printers, the electron-beam 3D-printer creates the components layer by layer, but with some additional measures. First, a vacuum environment is created in order to prevent contaminants and to prevent the electron-beam from losing energy to gas molecules. Then, a layer of tungsten dust is laid down, and the printer’s beam is directed into the shapes required for the component. The result is a piece of tungsten without any defects from contaminants or welds. The ability to create such complex components out of tungsten might contribute to the development of more viable fusion reactors, which can produce plasma as hot as 180 million degrees Fahrenheit. That would really make this metal a hot commodity.
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FREEDogs Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
The sky has gone to the dogs! Any successful business has to fill a need, but it's important to remember that needs are always changing. Case in point, BARK Air, an airline exclusively for dogs and their owners, recently made its first flight from New York to Los Angeles. While some business gurus would surely scoff at the idea of a pet-focused airline, multiple studies have shown that Americans’ attitudes on pet ownership have shifted dramatically over the past decade. In short, most Americans now see their pets as family members as opposed to possessions. This cultural change has made it harder for many people to stomach the thought of placing their precious pets in cargo—the only way to fly with large dogs on most major airlines. Enter BARK Air, an airline aiming to woo doting owners with the promise of a luxury flying experience for pets. On these flights, dogs of all sizes fly in-cabin, without being confined to carriers. Pups also receive treats and social interaction from staff—unfortunately, the pampering comes at a price. A one-way flight between New York and L.A. for one dog and one human costs $6,000, while a flight from New York to London is $8,000. Routes are also extremely limited, with New York, L.A., London, and Paris being the only current destinations. This all may seem like a risky business venture, but BARK Air is hoping that its current flights will serve as proof-of-concept, allowing prices to go down and more destinations to be added. Only time will tell if businesses like BARK Air remain boutique or become big-time.
[Image description: A brown dachshund wrapped in a blanket, sitting by a window.] Credit & copyright: Elina Volkova, PexelsThe sky has gone to the dogs! Any successful business has to fill a need, but it's important to remember that needs are always changing. Case in point, BARK Air, an airline exclusively for dogs and their owners, recently made its first flight from New York to Los Angeles. While some business gurus would surely scoff at the idea of a pet-focused airline, multiple studies have shown that Americans’ attitudes on pet ownership have shifted dramatically over the past decade. In short, most Americans now see their pets as family members as opposed to possessions. This cultural change has made it harder for many people to stomach the thought of placing their precious pets in cargo—the only way to fly with large dogs on most major airlines. Enter BARK Air, an airline aiming to woo doting owners with the promise of a luxury flying experience for pets. On these flights, dogs of all sizes fly in-cabin, without being confined to carriers. Pups also receive treats and social interaction from staff—unfortunately, the pampering comes at a price. A one-way flight between New York and L.A. for one dog and one human costs $6,000, while a flight from New York to London is $8,000. Routes are also extremely limited, with New York, L.A., London, and Paris being the only current destinations. This all may seem like a risky business venture, but BARK Air is hoping that its current flights will serve as proof-of-concept, allowing prices to go down and more destinations to be added. Only time will tell if businesses like BARK Air remain boutique or become big-time.
[Image description: A brown dachshund wrapped in a blanket, sitting by a window.] Credit & copyright: Elina Volkova, Pexels -
FREEBiology Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
What does a protein sound like? If you’re a scientist, it may be music to your ears. Researchers at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign have begun to unravel the mystery of folding proteins, according to a report they published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. When it comes to chemistry, visualizing things via graphs and models can be very useful in understanding different reactions. However, scientists studying the processes by which proteins fold didn’t find visualizations to be particularly useful. When proteins fold to become enzymes, hormones, or any of the myriad components in the human body, they do so through a series of tens of thousands of hydrogen-bonding events. Not only does this happen on the nano to microsecond scale, proteins can fold into the wrong configurations and correct themselves by reversing the process until the correct shape is attained. When researchers tried to map these sequences, they hit a roadblock: the sequence is so complicated that the visualizations were pretty much impossible to analyze. The solution to this turned out to be data sonification, which converted each hydrogen bonding event into a sound. They used a computer program to assign a unique pitch to each part of the sequence and listened for folds, which helped them better understand how they form. This was partly possible because the human brain can process audio twice as fast as vision, and can naturally detect slight variations in pitch. As for why folding proteins are such a subject of interest, it’s because misfolded proteins cause a variety of diseases like Alzheimer’s and cystic fibrosis, so understanding the mechanism behind protein folding could give researchers insight into possible treatments. It might sound strange…but they’re not exactly playing it by ear.
What does a protein sound like? If you’re a scientist, it may be music to your ears. Researchers at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign have begun to unravel the mystery of folding proteins, according to a report they published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. When it comes to chemistry, visualizing things via graphs and models can be very useful in understanding different reactions. However, scientists studying the processes by which proteins fold didn’t find visualizations to be particularly useful. When proteins fold to become enzymes, hormones, or any of the myriad components in the human body, they do so through a series of tens of thousands of hydrogen-bonding events. Not only does this happen on the nano to microsecond scale, proteins can fold into the wrong configurations and correct themselves by reversing the process until the correct shape is attained. When researchers tried to map these sequences, they hit a roadblock: the sequence is so complicated that the visualizations were pretty much impossible to analyze. The solution to this turned out to be data sonification, which converted each hydrogen bonding event into a sound. They used a computer program to assign a unique pitch to each part of the sequence and listened for folds, which helped them better understand how they form. This was partly possible because the human brain can process audio twice as fast as vision, and can naturally detect slight variations in pitch. As for why folding proteins are such a subject of interest, it’s because misfolded proteins cause a variety of diseases like Alzheimer’s and cystic fibrosis, so understanding the mechanism behind protein folding could give researchers insight into possible treatments. It might sound strange…but they’re not exactly playing it by ear.
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FREESTEM Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
Get the lead out of your pants and pipes! With health professionals now saying that there is no safe level of lead exposure, more and more people are taking precautions against its presence in drinking water. While testing for lead can be costly and time consuming, a new device created by engineers at MIT, Nanytang Technological University, and several private companies might make the process as easy as turning on the tap, according to a paper published in Nature Communications. After Flint, Michigan, made headlines for its lead contaminated water in 2016, the issue of lead in drinking water hasn’t left the American public consciousness. Like many American cities, Flint’s drinking water system was largely composed of lead pipes. The malleable, durable metal has been used in plumbing for millennia, dating back to the ancient Romans. Unfortunately, reliance on this toxic metal has left around 56 percent of the U.S. with contaminated water. Testing for lead typically involves gathering samples and testing them for about $50 each in a lab, and it can take several tests to ensure accuracy. But cheap, frequent testing might be possible in the near future, thanks to researchers who developed a photonic chip that can detect lead in concentrations as low as 1 part per billion. Photonic chips rely on light to detect the presence of certain chemicals, and these chips use crown ethers (ring-shaped molecules composed of ether groups) embedded on the surface that trap lead ions. As of now, there isn’t a finished product on the market, but this innovation could make handheld lead detection devices a possibility. Anything to stop lead dead in the water.
[Image description: An 1838 illustration of a lead pipe rolling machine.] Credit & copyright: Department of the Interior. Patent Office (1849 - 1925). Robt [Robert] M. Scydle and Lewis Ward's Lead pipe Roller. This file was contributed to Wikimedia Commons by National Archives and Records Administration. The donation was facilitated by the Digital Public Library of America, via its partner Digital Public Library of America. Public Domain.
Get the lead out of your pants and pipes! With health professionals now saying that there is no safe level of lead exposure, more and more people are taking precautions against its presence in drinking water. While testing for lead can be costly and time consuming, a new device created by engineers at MIT, Nanytang Technological University, and several private companies might make the process as easy as turning on the tap, according to a paper published in Nature Communications. After Flint, Michigan, made headlines for its lead contaminated water in 2016, the issue of lead in drinking water hasn’t left the American public consciousness. Like many American cities, Flint’s drinking water system was largely composed of lead pipes. The malleable, durable metal has been used in plumbing for millennia, dating back to the ancient Romans. Unfortunately, reliance on this toxic metal has left around 56 percent of the U.S. with contaminated water. Testing for lead typically involves gathering samples and testing them for about $50 each in a lab, and it can take several tests to ensure accuracy. But cheap, frequent testing might be possible in the near future, thanks to researchers who developed a photonic chip that can detect lead in concentrations as low as 1 part per billion. Photonic chips rely on light to detect the presence of certain chemicals, and these chips use crown ethers (ring-shaped molecules composed of ether groups) embedded on the surface that trap lead ions. As of now, there isn’t a finished product on the market, but this innovation could make handheld lead detection devices a possibility. Anything to stop lead dead in the water.
[Image description: An 1838 illustration of a lead pipe rolling machine.] Credit & copyright: Department of the Interior. Patent Office (1849 - 1925). Robt [Robert] M. Scydle and Lewis Ward's Lead pipe Roller. This file was contributed to Wikimedia Commons by National Archives and Records Administration. The donation was facilitated by the Digital Public Library of America, via its partner Digital Public Library of America. Public Domain.
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FREEPhysics Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
Time to shed a little light on a new discovery. Scientists at MIT have found that light alone (that is, without heat) can cause water to evaporate, according to a paper published in PNAS. While a watched pot supposedly never boils, the fact is that as long as enough heat is applied to water, it will eventually turn it into vapor. Heat excites the water molecules, causing them to separate from each other. Now, we know that light can do the same thing in a phenomenon called the photomolecular effect. The discovery was partially made by accident, when researchers noticed that hydrogel was losing its water molecules at a faster rate than anticipated when accounting for thermal energy, seemingly violating the law of conservation of energy. Hydrogel is a material that resembles gelatin and contains water molecules held in a lattice of thin membranes that form a matrix. Researchers found that when light hits the material, it causes the water on its surface to evaporate—notably, the rate of evaporation can be several times faster than with thermal energy. In their experiments, the scientists exposed water-laden hydrogel to various wavelengths of light—which is independent of thermal energy—and found that green light was most efficient at evaporation. The researchers hope that their discovery can lead to innovations in solar desalination and possibly lead to solar-based evaporative cooling. It’s a green light to the future.
[Image description: Water droplets on a green leaf.] Credit & copyright: Min An, Pexels
Time to shed a little light on a new discovery. Scientists at MIT have found that light alone (that is, without heat) can cause water to evaporate, according to a paper published in PNAS. While a watched pot supposedly never boils, the fact is that as long as enough heat is applied to water, it will eventually turn it into vapor. Heat excites the water molecules, causing them to separate from each other. Now, we know that light can do the same thing in a phenomenon called the photomolecular effect. The discovery was partially made by accident, when researchers noticed that hydrogel was losing its water molecules at a faster rate than anticipated when accounting for thermal energy, seemingly violating the law of conservation of energy. Hydrogel is a material that resembles gelatin and contains water molecules held in a lattice of thin membranes that form a matrix. Researchers found that when light hits the material, it causes the water on its surface to evaporate—notably, the rate of evaporation can be several times faster than with thermal energy. In their experiments, the scientists exposed water-laden hydrogel to various wavelengths of light—which is independent of thermal energy—and found that green light was most efficient at evaporation. The researchers hope that their discovery can lead to innovations in solar desalination and possibly lead to solar-based evaporative cooling. It’s a green light to the future.
[Image description: Water droplets on a green leaf.] Credit & copyright: Min An, Pexels
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FREEFinance Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
It’s one of the biggest companies in the world, and it’s headed by none other than famed businessman Warren Buffett, but what does it actually do? Berkshire Hathaway is a massive, American-based, multinational conglomerate, meaning that it owns controlling stakes in many smaller companies. Yet, it had humble beginnings—at least compared to what it is today. The company that would become Berkshire Hathaway was founded in 1839 by American businessman Oliver Chace. It was a textile manufacturing company in Valley Falls, Rhode Island, appropriately called the Valley Falls Company. In 1929, the company underwent the first of many, many mergers when it combined with the Berkshire Cotton Manufacturing company to become Berkshire Fine Spinning Associates. The company gained the “Hathaway” portion of its eventual name in 1955, when it merged with another textiles business, the Hathaway Manufacturing Company. Warren Buffett came onto the scene in 1962, when he began buying stock in Berkshire Hathaway. Eventually, he came to control the entire company, but there was just one problem—the U.S. textiles industry was puttering out. Soon, with Buffett at the helm, Berkshire Hathaway began buying up other companies unrelated to the textiles industry, the first of which was National Indemnity Company. By 1985, Berkshire Hathaway had ceased its textiles operations altogether. Today, Berkshire Hathway owns large stakes in enormous companies like Coca-Cola, as well as entire businesses in the transportation, insurance, and retail industries, among others. So, as for what the company does, the answer really is “a bit of everything!”
[Image description: An illustration of the Berkshire Cotton Manufacturing Company in Adams, Massachusetts, featuring several buildings and two large smokestacks.] Credit & copyright: Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1899 catalog, Wikimedia Commons. This image is in the public domain.It’s one of the biggest companies in the world, and it’s headed by none other than famed businessman Warren Buffett, but what does it actually do? Berkshire Hathaway is a massive, American-based, multinational conglomerate, meaning that it owns controlling stakes in many smaller companies. Yet, it had humble beginnings—at least compared to what it is today. The company that would become Berkshire Hathaway was founded in 1839 by American businessman Oliver Chace. It was a textile manufacturing company in Valley Falls, Rhode Island, appropriately called the Valley Falls Company. In 1929, the company underwent the first of many, many mergers when it combined with the Berkshire Cotton Manufacturing company to become Berkshire Fine Spinning Associates. The company gained the “Hathaway” portion of its eventual name in 1955, when it merged with another textiles business, the Hathaway Manufacturing Company. Warren Buffett came onto the scene in 1962, when he began buying stock in Berkshire Hathaway. Eventually, he came to control the entire company, but there was just one problem—the U.S. textiles industry was puttering out. Soon, with Buffett at the helm, Berkshire Hathaway began buying up other companies unrelated to the textiles industry, the first of which was National Indemnity Company. By 1985, Berkshire Hathaway had ceased its textiles operations altogether. Today, Berkshire Hathway owns large stakes in enormous companies like Coca-Cola, as well as entire businesses in the transportation, insurance, and retail industries, among others. So, as for what the company does, the answer really is “a bit of everything!”
[Image description: An illustration of the Berkshire Cotton Manufacturing Company in Adams, Massachusetts, featuring several buildings and two large smokestacks.] Credit & copyright: Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1899 catalog, Wikimedia Commons. This image is in the public domain. -
FREESTEM Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
What has six limbs, a hard outer shell, and loves pollinating flowers? It’s not a bee, it’s the Stickbug! While bees, butterflies, birds, and other pollinators are essential for agriculture, many species are currently on the decline. Thus, a team of robotics researchers at West Virginia University have developed a robot named Stickbug that might help fill in the gaps, according to a paper published in arXiv. As the team wrote in their paper, Stickbug is “a six-armed, multi-agent, precision pollination robot that combines the accuracy of single-agent systems with swarm parallelization in greenhouses.” There are other pollinating robots, but they tend to be specialized and limited in scope, only able to pollinate certain types of flowers. Stickbug, on the other hand, is capable of pollinating a wider variety of flowers thanks to its six robotic manipulators. Like its namesake, the robot’s main body is long and thin with six robotic arms, each with its own manipulator. For navigation, it uses a compact holonomic Kiwi drive, and it uses a felt-tipped finger to spread pollen. The researchers hope that the robot can be used in places where natural pollinator populations have declined. To that end, they believe that Stickbug has the potential to be highly scalable. Unfortunately, Stickbug probably won’t be making honey anytime soon.
[Image description: A field of green crops in the sunset.] Credit & copyright: Alejandro Barrón, Pexels
What has six limbs, a hard outer shell, and loves pollinating flowers? It’s not a bee, it’s the Stickbug! While bees, butterflies, birds, and other pollinators are essential for agriculture, many species are currently on the decline. Thus, a team of robotics researchers at West Virginia University have developed a robot named Stickbug that might help fill in the gaps, according to a paper published in arXiv. As the team wrote in their paper, Stickbug is “a six-armed, multi-agent, precision pollination robot that combines the accuracy of single-agent systems with swarm parallelization in greenhouses.” There are other pollinating robots, but they tend to be specialized and limited in scope, only able to pollinate certain types of flowers. Stickbug, on the other hand, is capable of pollinating a wider variety of flowers thanks to its six robotic manipulators. Like its namesake, the robot’s main body is long and thin with six robotic arms, each with its own manipulator. For navigation, it uses a compact holonomic Kiwi drive, and it uses a felt-tipped finger to spread pollen. The researchers hope that the robot can be used in places where natural pollinator populations have declined. To that end, they believe that Stickbug has the potential to be highly scalable. Unfortunately, Stickbug probably won’t be making honey anytime soon.
[Image description: A field of green crops in the sunset.] Credit & copyright: Alejandro Barrón, Pexels
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FREETravel Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
If you’ve ever ditched your car to ride the rails in the U.S., chances are you’ve interacted with this corporation. On this day in 1971, Amtrak, a corporation that operates nearly all U.S. passenger trains, began running. Amtrak was actually started by a U.S. President—Richard Nixon to be precise—who in 1970 signed the Rail Passenger Service Act, creating the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, which later became Amtrak. From day one, Amtrak operated 184 trains, with the first one running between New York City and Philadelphia. Today, more than 300 Amtrak trains run throughout the country. It’s important to note, though, that Amtrak isn’t a private company. Rather, it’s a federally chartered corporation, meaning that the federal government is a majority stockholder. The government is heavily involved in Amtrak’s operations; the corporation’s board of directors is appointed by the U.S. president and confirmed by the senate. It may seem strange, but Amtrak also doesn’t own the tracks that their trains run on. Rather, most U.S. tracks are privately owned and operated, with a few owned by state governments or even the federal government. It’s a confusing system, but it’s meant to ensure that both public and private interests work together to keep American trains running safely. Hey, if it works it works!
If you’ve ever ditched your car to ride the rails in the U.S., chances are you’ve interacted with this corporation. On this day in 1971, Amtrak, a corporation that operates nearly all U.S. passenger trains, began running. Amtrak was actually started by a U.S. President—Richard Nixon to be precise—who in 1970 signed the Rail Passenger Service Act, creating the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, which later became Amtrak. From day one, Amtrak operated 184 trains, with the first one running between New York City and Philadelphia. Today, more than 300 Amtrak trains run throughout the country. It’s important to note, though, that Amtrak isn’t a private company. Rather, it’s a federally chartered corporation, meaning that the federal government is a majority stockholder. The government is heavily involved in Amtrak’s operations; the corporation’s board of directors is appointed by the U.S. president and confirmed by the senate. It may seem strange, but Amtrak also doesn’t own the tracks that their trains run on. Rather, most U.S. tracks are privately owned and operated, with a few owned by state governments or even the federal government. It’s a confusing system, but it’s meant to ensure that both public and private interests work together to keep American trains running safely. Hey, if it works it works!
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FREEBiology Nerdy CurioFree1 CQ
It’s the ultimate two-for-one deal. An international team of scientists have managed to see one of the world’s rarest natural phenomena—primary endosymbiosis—in action after years of observation. As one of the authors of their recent study stated, when this last happened over a billion years ago, the first plants appeared on Earth. Primary endosymbiosis occurs when two separate lifeforms join together as one, with the smaller of the two becoming an organelle. The first time the phenomenon occurred, a single-celled organism absorbed a bacterium whole, and that bacterium became the mitochondria. Without it, complex life that requires more energy than what a single-celled organism can produce could not have come into existence. Then came plants, which was the result of one of these complex organisms swallowing a cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are capable of turning sunlight into energy, and inside their new hosts, they became chloroplasts which make photosynthesis possible for plants. The latest example of this phenomena was just discovered, but has actually been happening for around a 100 million years. It involves an algae called Braarudosphaera bigelowii that absorbs a cyanobacteria called UCYN-A. Since the process of endosymbiosis first started between these two, UCYN-A has been losing parts of its genome while increasingly becoming reliant on B. bigelowii to provide necessary nutrients, indicating that it has fully accepted its role as an organelle. In exchange, UCYN-A fixes nitrogen from the air, something that algae and plants can’t do on their own. Even legumes—which are often referred to as nitrogen fixers—rely on bacteria living in their roots for the vital element. With further study, scientists say that it may be possible to use the algae to to fix nitrogen in crops, lessening dependence on fertilizers. Now that’s a green solution.
[Image description: A digital diagram of an ovular animal mitochondria with labeled portions.] Credit & copyright: Mariana Ruiz Villarreal LadyofHats, Wikimedia Commons
It’s the ultimate two-for-one deal. An international team of scientists have managed to see one of the world’s rarest natural phenomena—primary endosymbiosis—in action after years of observation. As one of the authors of their recent study stated, when this last happened over a billion years ago, the first plants appeared on Earth. Primary endosymbiosis occurs when two separate lifeforms join together as one, with the smaller of the two becoming an organelle. The first time the phenomenon occurred, a single-celled organism absorbed a bacterium whole, and that bacterium became the mitochondria. Without it, complex life that requires more energy than what a single-celled organism can produce could not have come into existence. Then came plants, which was the result of one of these complex organisms swallowing a cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are capable of turning sunlight into energy, and inside their new hosts, they became chloroplasts which make photosynthesis possible for plants. The latest example of this phenomena was just discovered, but has actually been happening for around a 100 million years. It involves an algae called Braarudosphaera bigelowii that absorbs a cyanobacteria called UCYN-A. Since the process of endosymbiosis first started between these two, UCYN-A has been losing parts of its genome while increasingly becoming reliant on B. bigelowii to provide necessary nutrients, indicating that it has fully accepted its role as an organelle. In exchange, UCYN-A fixes nitrogen from the air, something that algae and plants can’t do on their own. Even legumes—which are often referred to as nitrogen fixers—rely on bacteria living in their roots for the vital element. With further study, scientists say that it may be possible to use the algae to to fix nitrogen in crops, lessening dependence on fertilizers. Now that’s a green solution.
[Image description: A digital diagram of an ovular animal mitochondria with labeled portions.] Credit & copyright: Mariana Ruiz Villarreal LadyofHats, Wikimedia Commons