Curio Cabinet / Nerdy Curio

Before gold glittered on Earth, it may have quaked in space. For years, science has posited that light elements, like hydrogen and helium, have existed on Earth since as far back as the Big Bang while heavier elements, like gold and uranium, were probably made elsewhere. That’s because a vast amount of energy is needed to create such heavy elements. These theories have been backed up by modern astronomical evidence of heavy elements being created during stellar events, such as nuclear fusion in the cores of stars. When these stars explode, they shower nearby solar systems with heavy elements. Now, researchers might have found another stellar event with the capacity to create gold: starquakes on a type of neutron star known as magnetars.
 
When stars explode, their cores can become neutron stars, the densest celestial objects in the universe. Magnetars are neutron stars with particularly strong magnetic fields. Since magnetars have fluid cores beneath their crusts, motion under the surface can cause massive starquakes, similar to earthquakes on our own planet. When this happens, magnetars can release bursts of radiation. While re-evaluating 20-year-old data from NASA and European Space Agency telescopes, researchers found evidence that these radiation bursts also cause massive explosions during which some of a magnetar’s mass is ejected into space. These explosions create the necessary conditions for the formation of heavy elements. Is it any wonder that gold shimmers like stars when that’s where it’s originally from?

[Image description: An earring in the shape of a gold star, made in the 8th-12th century.] Credit & copyright: Earring with Star and Granules The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Jeannette and Jonathan Rosen, 2001., Public Domain.
 

That’s one spiny little bugger! In some places (particularly in Europe) hedgehogs are a common sight, while in other places (like the U.S.A.) they’re considered exotic pets. Regardless of location, hedgehogs are famous for being small, cute, and, of course, spikey. An average European hedgehog has between 5,000 and 7,000 spikes covering its back and sides.
 
Hedgehogs have a wide range that includes parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They evolved around 15 million years ago and are still very similar to their ancient ancestors in size and appearance. They’re often mistaken for rodents, but they’re not actually members of the order Rodentia, which includes animals like mice, squirrels, and hamsters. Rather, hedgehogs belong to the order Eulipotyphla, along with animals like shrews and moles. Like their relatives, hedgehogs don’t eat seeds, grains, or fruit; they’re insectivores. Their diets mainly consist of worms, slugs, and beetles, though hedgehogs are opportunistic eaters and will even eat carrion if they happen across it.
Despite their small size and cute appearance, hedgehogs are pretty good at fending off predators thanks to their spikes. When a threat approaches, a hedgehog will roll into a prickly ball while hissing. The display is enough to drive most predators off.
 
Their natural defenses have helped hedgehogs become common in many places, including some where they really shouldn’t be. Hedgehogs were introduced to New Zealand from Europe in 1870, in an attempt to control New Zealand’s slug and snail populations. Unfortunately, hedgehogs are now invasive pests in the island nation, as they gobble up native wildlife and have no natural predators to control their population.
 
African pygmy hedgehogs are particularly popular as pets worldwide, as they typically do well in captivity and can even bond with their owners to a degree. They do have some special needs though. Not only do hedgehog owners need to have strong enough stomachs to feed their pets mealworms and other insects, but African pygmy hedgehogs also require heating lamps. If their body temperature slips below 68 degrees Fahrenheit, they can enter a hibernation-like state called torpor, which can be deadly. When it comes to keeping these prickly pals, not everyone can stand the heat.

 
[Image description: A brown hedgehog walking in green grass.] Credit & copyright: George Chernilevsky, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.

This week, as the weather continues to warm, we're looking back on some of our favorite springtime curios from years past.
 

Spring is arriving earlier than ever according to the National Park Service (NPS). As pleasant as it sounds, this has broad ramifications—such as the devastating floods in the Midwest this week. NPS ecologists published a study in 2016 that compared long-term shifts in the "first leaf" and first bloom dates of national parks. Of the 276 parks in the study, 75 percent are experiencing earlier and earlier first budding and blooming dates (the locations shown above in green). For example, in Washington's Olympic National Park, leaves are emerging 23 days sooner than they did 100 years ago. The Grand Canyon and the Appalachians are budding earlier as well. But areas in grey, such as the south, have been experiencing delayed signs of spring. Why is this such a big deal? For starters, "false springs" are partially responsible for premature blooming. Waves of unseasonable warmth cause plants to sprout in winter. The plants die when the cold resumes. Meaning that the migratory birds, pollinators, and hibernating mammals who rely on those plants find themselves in dire straits. Also, premature thaws of snowpacks lead to flooding which is not only dangerous but means the water can't be captured properly in reservoirs. So before you get too hopeful that spring will spring early… it might be better to wish for a few more weeks of winter.
 

Image credit & copyright: Jebulon, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

This week, as the weather continues to warm, we're looking back on some of our favorite springtime curios from years past.
 
These cleaning fish are making a mess in Texas! 406 invasive suckermouth armored catfish were removed from the San Marcos River recently by researchers from Texas A&M and Texas State universities. Better known as plecostomus or plecos, the fish are native to parts of Central and South America but were introduced to Texan waters mainly by people who dumped them from their aquariums. In some bodies of water, they were also introduced intentionally, to control algae. The fish are popular to keep because they eat the algae growing inside tanks, but their productivity can lead to headaches for their owners down the line, as plecos can grow up to three feet long from all that eating.
 
Once they’re in the wild, it’s a disaster for native wildlife. As their name implies, their thick, armored skin leaves them with few natural predators, and according to the Texas Invasive Species Institute, they reproduce quickly and are even capable of surviving out of water for 20 hours. Plecos have also been found to tolerate brackish waters, or water that has some salt and freshwater content, further increasing the range of their threat. Lastly, they tend to dig burrows along river banks, destabilizing them and increasing erosion. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) has been raising awareness on the issue for years and instructs people who catch the fish to not release them back into the water. When a highschooler caught a record-breaking suckermouth back in 2011, Dr. Gary Garrett—the Director of Watershed Conservation for the TPWD at the time—stated, “These fish are the most destructive exotic fish in Texas. They take over important habitats such as springs, push out and replace native species, including listed species and species of conservation concern, decimate native vegetation and undermine and destabilize banks. In no way do they have any redeeming qualities.” While scientists have tagged and released the invasive fish in the past to track their population, the 406 caught recently will not be so lucky, as the TPWD announced that the invaders will be euthanized humanely using a fish anesthetic and their remains will be used for further research. Seriously, don’t mess with Texas.

 
[Image description: A plecostomus fish in an aquarium.] Credit & copyright: Karelj, Wikimedia Commons.

Everyone loves a good tutorial video…even robots. Despite humanity’s recent breakthroughs in AI technology, there still aren’t many robots around. That’s because robots have physical bodies, which means that they have to navigate the physical world…which means that they have to be able to learn and adapt. That’s a tall order for a non-living entity with no brain. Typically, robots have to be programmed with very specific instructions, and then re-programmed with new information whenever they inevitably encounter real-world obstacles. Now, though, researchers at Cornell University in New York have developed an AI-powered framework that allows robots to learn new things simply by watching a video. It’s called RHyME (Retrieval for Hybrid Imitation under Mismatched Execution), and it works by equipping robots with a “memory bank” of moving images that they can access when they encounter tasks they don’t understand. While videos of humans performing various tasks have been used to train robots before, the method was never completely successful because humans don’t move like robots, and their movements would therefore confuse their robotic pupils. This is the problem that RHyME set out to fix. When a RHyME-equipped robot watches how-to videos of humans performing tasks, it retains all the images within a memory bank. After watching multiple videos, the robot has a lot of stored information to draw upon, and it can piece together new actions using its memory for “inspiration.” For example, if a robot has seen a video of a person opening a book, it can not only open a book itself, but also draw on other videos it might have seen of humans grasping, lifting, and setting down objects. This would allow it to grab, lift, and set down the book in addition to opening it, even if it hadn’t seen a human perform those exact actions with a book. RHyME could open the door to more adaptive robotic learning, allowing robots to safely perform tasks in all sorts of new environments. Futuristic robotic butlers, here we come!

[Image description: A digital illustration of a robotic hand reaching toward geometric grid-like shapes.] Credit & copyright: Tara Winstead, Pexels
 

Hey there, that’s no bear! Red pandas might not be closely related to actual pandas, but they do still resemble their closest living relatives: racoons. With their reddish fur, “masked” faces and long, ringed tails, red pandas are a striking sight. No wonder they’re cultural icons in Japan, and have been the subject of movies, books, and cartoons in recent years. Beloved as they are, though, red pandas are also endangered, with less than 10,000 living in the wild.
 
Red pandas are unique in ways that have nothing to do with their good looks. They’re the only living members of the family Ailuridae, which falls within the superfamily Musteloidea. Other members of this superfamily include racoons, skunks, and weasels. Like these animals, red pandas are officially considered carnivores because of certain physical characteristics, like their teeth and skull shape. However, unlike most other members of Musteloidea, red pandas almost exclusively eat vegetation: specifically bamboo. In fact, it makes up around 95 percent of their diet. This is the real reason that they share their name with giant pandas, one of the only other animals on Earth that survives on almost nothing but bamboo. Compared to giant pandas, though, red pandas are quite small. They’re only about the size of a domestic cat, reaching lengths of around 43 inches (including their tails) and weighing between eight and 17 pounds.
 
In their natural habitat of high-altitude, mountainous Asian forests, red pandas spend most of their lives in the treetops. They are excellent climbers, with special wrist bones that act as pseudo-thumbs, allowing them to grip branches. Like squirrels, red pandas use their long tails for balance. They lead solitary lives until mating season, which takes place from January to March. Adult red pandas split up after mating, and females give birth in summer to one to four cubs, which will stay with her for around a year.
 
Unfortunately, habitat destruction has caused red panda birth rates to plummet, and they’ve been considered endangered since 2015. Because red pandas are such popular cultural icons, they’re also targeted by the illegal pet trade. Conservation organizations like the Red Panda Network are working in countries like Nepal and Bhutan to increase the red panda population, but stricter protections for red pandas’ habitat will be needed to make any lasting progress. Hopefully their striking looks can strike a chord with government officials.

 
[Image description: A red panda surrounded by snow, walking with one paw raised.] Credit & copyright: Wikimedia Commons, Dave Pape. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Davepape. This applies worldwide.

Your memories are your own business…for now. The ability to read minds and delete memories has always been relegated to the world of science fiction, but as we learn more about how memories are formed, we’re also learning how they might be strengthened, weakened, or even erased. Until the mid-20th century, little was known about how memories were actually formed. Then, in the 1940s and 50s, American-Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield performed a series of experiments in which he stimulated patients’ brains with electrical currents while they were conscious. He discovered that memories could be evoked by targeting different parts of the cortex with electricity. This research helped lead to the discovery that memories are formed via connections between neurons. These connections are created when a person has a memorable experience, and can be strengthened naturally by repeating similar experiences or by talking out loud about past experiences. They can also be strengthened artificially, as discovered by neuroscientist Robert Hampson, of North Carolina’s Wake Forest University School of Medicine. Using electricity, his team found a way to replicate neuron signals associated with specific images in an image-based memory test. When volunteers received electrical stimulation to their brains that mimicked those signals, their performance on the test improved by 35 to 40 percent. Of course, it stands to reason that if certain neural pathways weaken over time, then memories will also weaken, or fade away completely—and if memories can be artificially strengthened, they might be able to be artificially weakened too. The simplest way to do this might be to interfere with the memory-making process as it’s happening. Research has shown that neural connections are facilitated by molecules in the brain. Blocking these molecules during memory formation could cause the memory to go “unrecorded.” It’s possible that, one day, selectively removing molecules in certain areas could allow specific memories to be deleted…but right now, that’s still a long way off. While memory-strengthening treatments could one day lead to better treatments for dementia and Alzheimer's, memory-weakening technology could help those with traumatic memories or PTSD. Surely everyone has a few embarrassing teenage memories that they wouldn't mind losing too.

[Image description: A computer illustration of a gray brain against a black background.] Credit & copyright: KATRIN BOLOVTSOVA, Pexels
 

No more jumping through hoops for these pachyderms. Washington state recently passed a bill banning the use of exotic animals in traveling shows, including circuses. Along with lions, tigers, monkeys, and bears, elephants are expected to benefit greatly from the legislation. Because they’re smaller and more docile than their African cousins, Asian elephants have long been used (and, unfortunately, often abused) in European and American circuses. In their native habitat, however, Asian elephants have traditionally been revered by people and are even symbols of royalty in some countries. Still, they’re extremely endangered in the wild, with only around 30,000 to 50,000 wild individuals left.
 
Asian elephants are native to South and Southeast Asia, where they're the largest mammals on the continent. They usually stand between 6 and 12 feet tall, and males can weigh up to 13,000 pounds. Asian elephants are versatile, able to live in dense tropical forests or on open grasslands. For females, survival depends on cooperation with herd members. Females and young males live in herds of around seven individuals, with the oldest female acting as the leader, or matriarch. The matriarch is responsible for leading the herd to areas with enough food to sustain them. She also leads them on their yearly migration during the dry season, using her age and experience to ensure that they find water. Herd living allows female Asian elephants to protect themselves and their calves from tigers, their only wild predators. As for male Asian elephants, they leave their herds when they reach around eight years of age, and live mostly solitary lives, only interacting with other elephants during mating season, which coincides with the rainy season from around June to October.
 
Asian elephants might be smaller than African elephants, but both species share a common ancestor, though that ancestor didn’t look much like either modern species. Moeritherium lived in northern Africa around 37 to 50 million years ago, and looked more like a pig, hippo, or tapir than an elephant. Yet, all species in the family Elephantidae, including the extinct wooly mammoth, are distantly related to it. When some elephant ancestors made their way to Asia around six million years ago, Asian and African elephants officially diverged, and began to become their own species. They still have plenty in common, though, including their endangered status. Humans are the greatest threat facing both species. Habitat loss and poaching could drive Asian elephants to extinction in just a few years if nothing is done. Size just isn’t enough to protect against people.

 
[Image description: A close-up photo of a male Asian elephant with its mouth open.] Credit & copyright: LadyofHats, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work, has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.

How big can something be before it’s no longer useful? That’s the question that many in the tech industry are asking in reference to computer chips. As modern computers demand more and more processing power, standard silicon, closed-circuit chips are having to get bigger and bigger to handle the extra workload. The fear is that, at some point, chips will grow too big and bulky for modern electronics, which tend to be small, lightweight, and portable. Enter the California tech firm, Lightmatter. Their new, photonic computer chips, which were described in two papers in the scientific journal Nature, use not just electricity, but also light to process information. Because the chips utilize photons rather than electrons, they are able to process more, and at much faster speeds, than traditional chips, while remaining fairly small. Studies have shown that the chips are strong enough to power several modern AI systems, which require an immense amount of processing strength. In fact, the chips are capable of performing 65.5 trillion adaptive block floating-point 16-bit (ABFP) operations per second. If that's not enough, photonic chips also use far less energy than normal electron-based ones, consuming just 78 watts of electrical power and 1.6 watts of optical power. That’s a breakthrough in the realm of photonic processing, but only time will tell if photonic chips turn out to be the future of computing. Other technologies, like quantum computing and carbon-nanotube chips, are also being investigated as solutions to our modern processing problems. Phones and laptops might get even lighter in the future, especially if they’re running on light!
 

[Image description: A burst of light with white rays.] Credit & copyright: Limonc, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.
 

Hold onto your iron throne, dire wolves are back! For the first time in history, an extinct species has been revived…sort of. Dire wolves were large canids that went extinct around 13,000 years ago. Now, an American biotech company called Colossal Biosciences is claiming to have brought the species back from extinction via three dire wolf cubs, fittingly named Romulus, Remes, and Khaleesi. Some experts, however, disagree on whether these pups are truly dire wolves. Others are taking the time to remind the public that, despite their appearance, dire wolves weren’t actually wolves at all.
 
Dire wolves are often portrayed as giants, larger than any living wolf species, but that’s not particularly accurate. Dire wolves were only slightly larger than modern gray wolves: the former grew to lengths of around six feet and weighed around 150 pounds, while the latter is just a little smaller, reaching similar lengths and weighing around 110 pounds. Dire wolves were native to the Americas, and like modern wolves they hunted in packs, preying on large animals like bison and camels, though their diets also included extinct megafauna like giant ground sloths and mastodons.
 
Despite their similarity to extant wolves, recent genetic discoveries revealed that dire wolves weren’t very closely related to them. In fact, dire wolves’ lineage diverged from that of modern canines like coyotes, wolves, and dogs almost 6 million years ago. They ended up looking and behaving like modern wolves through a process called convergent evolution, in which two or more species evolve similar traits in order to fill a certain ecological niche—in this case, the role of pack-hunting predator.
 
As for the recently “de-extincted” dire wolves, there’s no doubt that there are no other canines like them alive today. Whether that actually makes them true dire wolves is a topic of some debate among experts. The pups weren’t, after all, cloned from a full, intact genetic sample from an extinct dire wolf. Instead, damaged and fragmented dire wolf DNA was extracted from fossils and then edited into the DNA of a modern gray wolf. This has caused some biologists to contend that the pups are modified gray wolves with some dire wolf traits. Regardless, such “de-extinction” technology could one day make it possible to see all sorts of long-gone animals (or at least something close to them) again. Hopefully it's not a Jurassic Park situation.

 
[Image description: A photo of a gray wolf lying in the grass.] Credit & copyright: USFWS National Digital Library, Hollingsworth, John and Karen, USFWS. Public Domain.

Anyone worrying about a potential The Last of Us situation can breathe a sigh of relief. A new, experimental antibiotic is showing great promise in fighting fungal infections, even ones that have typically been resistant to drugs. Unlike bacterial infections, fungal infections have always been notoriously difficult to treat. Antibiotics usually have no effect on them, and fungal cells are similar enough to human cells that other potential treatments have a difficult time distinguishing between the infection and the cells it’s attacking. Fungus is an extremely tenacious form of life that evolves fast, which means that it can develop resistance to anti-fungal drugs very quickly. Mandimycin, a drug discovered by researchers from China Pharmaceutical University, works differently than other anti-fungal medications. Although it’s an antibiotic, it’s been shown to kill fungi responsible for drug-resistant infections, including those on the World Health Organization’s fungal priority pathogens list. The drug works by targeting fungal cells’ phospholipids, lipids that help form the cells’ membranes and regulate their permeability. When mandimycin binds to these lipids, holes appear in the fungal cells’ membranes, killing the cells. While mandimycin is part of the same class of drugs as the effective anti-fungal amphotericin B, the new drug’s side effects seem, at least in mice, to be much less severe. Amphotericin B is usually considered a “last resort” medication since it can lead to side effects like double vision, shortness of breath, and even seizures. Hopefully those unlucky enough to face a fungal infection will soon have a gentler, yet more effective option.

[Image description: A red-and-white toadstool on Kaien Island, British Columbia.] Credit & copyright: Extemporalist, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

Who are you calling ugly? Derided and memed across the internet for its droopy, endearingly ugly visage, the humble blobfish has finally found redemption. It was recently voted "Fish of the Year" in New Zealand. The blobfish has been an unlikely star since 2003, when images of its puffy face went viral on the early internet. Most photographs show a fish the color of light human skin with a frumpy face that seems to be in a deep frown. As its name suggests, the fish is also blobby, for lack of a better word. Despite these unflattering internet images, though, the blobfish doesn’t actually look as strange as one might think…at least, not in its natural environment.
 
There are several species of blobfish, also known as fatheads, and all are members of the family Psychrolutidae. They’re fairly small, only reaching lengths of around 12 inches. Small doesn’t mean weak, though. In fact, these fish live in one of the most extreme environments on Earth: the deep ocean. Blobfish live at depths between 2,000 and 3,900 feet, where water pressure can be over 100 times greater than at sea level. It’s so deep, in fact, that humans have observed very little of blobfishes' day-to-day lives. In this environment, blobfish actually look pretty unremarkable. They have smooth, gray skin and their bodies are somewhat tadpole-shaped, with round heads, prominent jaws, and long tails. Their skin is gelatinous, and is able to keep its shape only because of their home’s immense water pressure. It’s only when they’re brought to the surface, either by storms or human intervention, that blobfish start to get blobby. Their bodies expand uncontrollably, leading to a bloated, misshapen appearance. You could say that it’s a fish-out-of-water situation.

 
[Image description: A gray blobfish on the ocean floor surrounded by ocean plants and sea urchins.] Credit & copyright: Image courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration, Seascape Alaska. Images in the NOAA Digital Library are in the “public domain” and cannot be copyrighted.

These molecules are long on drama. Long-chain organic molecules recently discovered on Mars are causing quite a stir in the world of planetary science. Discovered by NASA’s Curiosity rover, the molecules are the largest found on Mars to date, and they could be evidence that life once existed, in some form, on the Red Planet.
 
Curiosity is constantly taking samples of Martian rock, but it can’t send them back to Earth to be analyzed. Instead, the rover has a built-in sample-analyzing lab called Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM). It’s made up of three instruments that can determine the chemical composition of rocks picked up by Curiosity: a gas chromatograph, a quadrupole mass spectrometer, and a tunable laser spectrometer. The samples are heated to over 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, releasing gases whose chemical composition is then recorded. In a recent rock sample, Curiosity discovered three compounds that are made up of long chains of carbons. These carbon chains are likely the remnants of fatty acids, which are considered some of the building blocks of life.
 
This doesn’t definitively prove that life once existed on Mars, as fatty acids can also be made through non-biological chemical reactions. Still, this discovery shows that we’ve just scratched the surface when it comes to molecular findings on Mars. For now, we’ll stay curious about what Curiosity will unearth next.

[Image description: A starry sky with some purple light visible.] Credit & copyright: Felix Mittermeier, Pexels
 

You might not expect to run into a big cat in the Great Lake State, but these days, you could! Two cougar cubs were recently spotted in Michigan’s western Upper Peninsula. According to the state's Department of Natural Resources, it’s the first time in more than a century that cubs have been seen in Michigan. It could be an anomaly, or it could be a sign that these big cats are heading back to breed in one of their ancestral homes.
 
Cougars, also called mountain lions, pumas, or catamounts, are highly adaptable animals, able to live in states with varying terrain, from the mountains of Colorado to the forests of California to Arizona’s Sonoran Desert. They’re the second-largest wild cats in North America, the largest being jaguars. Males can reach lengths of up to eight feet and weigh up to 220 pounds, while females are smaller, reaching lengths of around six feet and weighing up to 140 pounds. While that’s nowhere near the size of big cats like lions or tigers, cougars still pack a mighty punch. Able to reach top speeds of around 50 miles per hour, cougars can chase down enormous animals like moose and elk, then use their powerful jaws and claws to kill their prey. It’s no wonder, then, that hikers in areas with large cougar populations, like Colorado, are advised to be cautious and avoid interactions with the big cats.
 
Still, humans pose a much greater threat to cougars than they do to us. Michigan is a perfect example of this; at one time, cougars roamed widely throughout the state. The cats were blamed for killing cattle, though, and bounties on cougars became common in the late 1800s, as did trophy hunting. Within a few decades, cougars were completely eradicated in Michigan. Protections have been passed in recent decades that prevent cougar hunting in the state, but until now it seemed that it wasn’t enough to bring the big cats back. Though some adults have been seen in the state in recent years, it was thought that these cougars were passersby, roaming in and out of Michigan from states with healthier cougar populations. Now that cubs have been spotted though, it seems that a breeding population might be making a new home in the Great Lake State. Maybe the environmental protections are paying off. Or maybe the cougars were just nostalgic.

 
[Image description: A mountain lion sitting, surrounded by greenery.] Credit & copyright: USFWS National Digital Library, Gentry, George, USFWS.

NATIONAL CONSERVATION TRAINING CENTER-PUBLICATIONS AND TRAINING MATERIALS, Item ID: WV-7941-Centennial CD. Public Domain.

It’s dangerous, it’s all around us, and it’s fueled by sunlight. No, it’s not a horror movie monster, it’s nitrous oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas that’s more potent than the more frequently-discussed carbon dioxide (CO2). According to a new study, it’s being produced at greater rates than previously thought, via a reaction we weren’t aware of. Greenhouse gases, like N2O, gather in Earth’s atmosphere and trap heat, steadily warming the planet. Gases’ molecular structures determine how effective they are at trapping heat, and although N2O only makes up around six percent of greenhouse gas emissions, it’s about 300 times more insulating than CO2, which makes up around 82 percent. Until now, it was thought that N2O was mainly produced by bacteria as a byproduct when the bacteria broke down certain nitrogen compounds. Researchers from Denmark and Spain challenged that notion when they published findings in the journal Science describing an abiotic, or non-biological, reaction that produces more N2O than biological ones. The process, called photochemodenitrification, still isn’t fully understood at the chemical level. However, by placing water samples in quartz vials, removing all biological matter from the samples, and then exposing them to sunlight, researchers proved that nitrite in surface water reacts with ultraviolet radiation to produce N2O. While this might seem like bad news, understanding the mechanisms by which greenhouse gases enter our atmosphere can be a first step toward reducing their emissions. You can’t solve a problem if you don’t know it’s happening, after all.

[Image description: Clouds and a glowing sun at sunset.] Credit & copyright: Loc Dang, Pexels
 

Whoa there, wombat! One of Australia’s most beloved marsupials is making international headlines for all the wrong reasons after an American influencer recently picked up a wild baby wombat without permission. Things aren’t all negative, though. It seems likely that the wombat was reunited with its mother, the influencer has issued an apology, and people around the world are suddenly eager to learn more about these adorable, chunky creatures.
 
Wombats are marsupials, or mammals that give birth to partially-developed young who finish their development in a pouch. Wombats are famous for their stalky, bear-like bodies featuring short limbs, stubby tails, and short muzzles. There are three species of wombat, all native to Australia. The most populous species is the bare-nosed wombat, also known as the common wombat. Adults are around 4 feet long, but their compact bodies are dense, so they can weigh up to 88 pounds. This makes them the third-largest marsupials alive today, though they can claim an even prouder lineage when it comes to size. The extinct Diprotodon, sometimes referred to as the “giant wombat”, was the largest marsupial to ever live, and it shared a common ancestor with both modern wombats and koalas.
 
While Northern and Southern hairy-nosed wombats live in groups of up to 15 individuals, common wombats are usually solitary once they reach adulthood. They spend much of their time digging and maintaining burrows in which to hide from the harsh Australian sun. With their powerful legs and long claws, wombats are excellent diggers; their burrows can be up to 100 feet long. Digging is so important to wombats that their pouches actually face backwards, so that they don’t fill up with dirt as they dig. Wombats are nocturnal, and they spend their nights grazing on grass and small plants. Adult wombats don’t have to worry too much about predators, thanks to their large size, but young wombats, called joeys, are vulnerable to birds of prey and dingoes, among other creatures.
 
Unfortunately, humans pose the biggest threat to wild wombats. Habitat destruction threatens all three species, and the Northern hairy-nosed wombat is critically endangered, having nearly gone extinct by the 1980s due to overhunting. Their population is more stable today, but all wombats are still protected in Australia, as part of conservation efforts. So don’t pick them up, even if they do look like teddy bears!

 
[Image description: A black-and-white illustration of five wombats foraging and lying on the ground.] Credit & copyright: The Wombat, from "Le Magasin Pittoresque", Charles Jacque (French, Paris 1813–1894 Paris). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1933. Public Domain.

Have you ever seen berkelocene? Not until now! Researchers led by the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) recently discovered a new organometallic molecule, called berkelocene. Organometallic molecules are made up of a carbon-based framework surrounding a metal ion, but this is the first time such a molecule has contained the element berkelium.
 
While organometallic molecules often contain metals from earlier in the periodic table, they’re rarely found to contain actinides, or metals with atomic numbers from 89-103. Berkelium’s atomic number is 97, making the discovery of berkelocene quite unusual. In fact, this is the first time that any chemical bond between carbon and berkelium has been observed. Like 23 other synthetic metals on the periodic table, berkelium is not naturally-occurring. It can only be created in labs via nuclear reactions, which makes it all the more unusual that it could bond with a natural element, like carbon. Berkelium is highly radioactive, which also makes it difficult to study. It’s fitting, though, that the discovery of berkelocene took place at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, since berkelium was originally discovered and named after Berkeley, California, in 1949. In chemistry, what goes around comes around, but be careful—it’s radioactive, after all.

[Image description: A black-and-white illustration of the periodic table cell for the element Berkelium.] Credit & copyright: Author’s own illustration.
 

Turns out, unicorns are real—they’ve been hanging out in the ocean this whole time. Narwhals, sometimes called the “unicorns of the sea” are some of the most unusual animals on Earth, but they’re also extremely elusive. In fact, until recently, there was little consensus on what narwhals used their long, horn-like tusks for. Now, drones have finally captured footage of narwhals using their tusks for hunting and play. The footage was captured thanks to researchers at Florida Atlantic University’s Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute and Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans, in partnership with Inuit communities in Nunavut in Canada’s High Arctic. The narwhals used their tusks to “steer” prey fish, like Arctic char, in favorable directions and even to hit and stun the fish. They also used their tusks to prod and shake various things in their environment, behavior that researchers described as “exploratory play.”
 
Narwhals’ “horns” aren’t horns at all, but tusks. A narwhal’s tusk begins as a canine tooth (usually their upper left) that eventually grows through their upper lip. However, not all narwhals end up with tusks at all. Some males never grow them for unknown reasons, and only about 15 percent of female narwhals do. Narwhal tusks can reach lengths of up to 10 feet. That’s more than half the length of an adult male’s body, which can reach 15.7 feet and weigh more than 3,500 pounds. Narwhals come by their large size naturally, as they’re members of the Monodontidae family. This family also includes belugas, right whales, sperm whales, and blue whales, the latter of which are the largest animals that have ever lived on Earth.
 
Like most whales, narwhals live in pods, or groups, of up to 10 individuals. Females, calves, and young males form pods together, while sexually mature males have pods of their own. Narwhals are also migratory, meaning that they spend different parts of the year in different places. In the summer, they spend their time in Arctic bays and fjords, but as thick sea ice forms in the fall, they migrate to deeper Arctic waters. Most narwhals spend the winter between Canada and Greenland, in areas like Baffin Bay. When narwhals return to shallower, coastal waters in the spring, they also begin searching for mates. While male narwhals have never been observed fighting for mates, they do display behavior called “tusking”, in which two males raise their tusks out of the water and lay them against each other, probably to determine which male is larger. Whichever male “wins” the contest will go on to mate with nearby females. Narwhals give birth to just one calf per year.
 
Unfortunately, narwhals' low birth rate makes it difficult for their numbers to recover after disasters like ocean storms or oil spills. Luckily, narwhals are not currently considered endangered, but as climate change continues to affect the Arctic waters they call home, they may have difficulty adapting to a warming world. That’s not very cool for these unicorns of the sea.

 
[Image description: A black-and-white illustration of a narwhal diving through water.] Credit & copyright: Archives of Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Pearson Scott Foresman. This applies worldwide.

It seems that time can be reflected—but don’t worry, you won’t have to re-live any embarrassing teenage moments! Some reflections are fairly easy to understand: when lightwaves bounce off of a reflective surface, like glass, or soundwaves bounce off a non-absorbent surface, like a concrete wall, we see a reflection or hear an echo. Since the 1970s, however, scientists have theorized that there is another, stranger way for waves like sound or light to be reflected, in which they actually move backwards in time. Now, researchers have finally managed to recreate the phenomenon, known as a time reflection, in a lab. Time reflections happen when a wave, such as a soundwave, becomes stretched and changes frequency while, at the same time, the medium through which the wave is traveling also abruptly changes course. If you’ve ever heard a police siren seemingly change frequency as it whizzes by, then you’re familiar with at least the first part of this phenomenon. But imagine if you counted from one to ten out loud, and then both the frequency of the soundwave you created and the structure of the air it was traveling through changed all at once. One end of the soundwave might “curl” back at you, so that you would hear yourself counting backwards, from ten to one, in a much higher pitch than you originally spoke. This is a time reflection.
 
Until now, researchers assumed that it would take too much energy to recreate a time reflection in a lab, since they’d have to suddenly and drastically change whatever material their experimental waves were traveling through. They were able to solve the problem by creating a special material specifically designed to interact with electromagnetic radiation, so that its structure could be changed very quickly. They then sent different lightwaves through the material via a metal strip wired with switches. When the switches were triggered, the frequencies of the lightwaves changed, altering the material itself at the same time by changing its impedance, or opposition to electrical flow. This caused some of the lightwaves to reflect back in an altered way, thus proving that time reflections exist and can, to some degree, be controlled. It’s probably too early to get excited for mass-produced time machines, though.

[Image description: A small round mirror sits outside in the snow, reflecting back snowflakes and green vegetation.] Credit & copyright: Lisa from Pexels, Pexels.
 

That mama mollyhawk could use a bit of mollycoddling; after all, she’s 74 years old! Albatrosses, also known as mollyhawks, are amazing seabirds. Known for their human-like facial expressions, long lifespans, and loyalty to their mates, they’ve appeared in all sorts of human media, from Disney movies to 18th century poetry. Now, an albatross named Wisdom is making headlines for becoming a mother at age 74. She’s also the world’s oldest known wild bird.
 
There are 22 species of albatross, which live in different parts of the Southern hemisphere and North Pacific. Since Wisdom is a Laysan albatross and one of the world’s most famous birds, her species is likewise the most famous. Laysan albatrosses are some of the world’s largest flying birds, weighing up to 5.6 pounds with wingspans of up to 80 inches. They spend most of their lives on the open waters of the North Pacific, where they can fly without landing for weeks at a time. When not flying, they float on the water’s surface like ducks and plunge their heads underwater to grab prey swimming near the surface, such as crabs, fish eggs, and squid.
 
Once a Laysan albatross is around three to five years old, it will return to land during breeding season, from November to July, to look for a mate. Breeding colonies of Laysan albatrosses can be found on many islands in the Hawaiian archipelago as well as small islands off of Japan and Mexico. Mating is serious business for albatrosses, since they return to the same partner year after year. When a male albatross finds a female that he fancies, he initiates a courtship dance that includes shuffling feet, head-bobbing, and raised wings. If the female dances back and synchronizes her movements to his, then the two mate. This doesn’t mean that the pair will successfully breed, though. Female albatrosses usually only lay one egg per successful season, and they often skip laying an egg every other year.
 
Of the 22 species of albatross, seven are endangered while two are critically endangered. Many albatrosses are killed by waste from the fishing industry, choking on hooks and bobbers or getting tangled in nets. Invasive species like cats sometimes kill adult albatrosses, while invasive rats can eat their eggs. Habitat loss is also a concern as human development encroaches on areas where the birds breed. Albatrosses’ slow reproductive cycles make population recovery difficult. Since they won’t breed in captivity, scientists have set out to help these seabirds in other ways. Some programs have installed artificial nests, which are more resilient to climate change than natural nests, in albatross breeding locations. Others have taken wild albatross chicks and raised them in captivity to give them a better chance of survival. Hopefully more albatrosses are able to follow in Wisdom’s footsteps in the coming years.

 
[Image description: A white-and-gray Albatross with a red band on one leg grooms her chick, which is fluffy and dark brown.] Credit & copyright: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Item ID: 55467033734e97399d40b. Public Domain.